Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.8 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2816737 2816635 2026-06-24T16:03:49Z Codename Noreste 2969951 /* Main page titles */ reply: Pinging @Jtneill and @Koavf for input above. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2816737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025]] == I posted an edit request there 5 months ago, so I’ll be taking it to this page. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28640-56|&#126;2026-28640-56]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28640-56|talk]]) 23:33, 12 May 2026 (UTC) :What exactly is the problem? I don't understand what needs to change and why. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:35, 12 May 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] for further input. Someone is requesting a modification to [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to use {{tlx|Protected page text}}, but we might need to discuss whether to use the template. In the meantime, I'll start a sandbox version of the protected page text template. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::Sounds good -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:13, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::+1 Jtneill. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:59, 19 May 2026 (UTC) == Proposal to rehost Wikinews here == As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance. I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ===Votes=== *{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of "practicing journalism" a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC) *{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity<math>\not=</math> Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC) * {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on "Media & Democracy" syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that "rehost Wikinews here" would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}} ===Comments and questions=== :Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice. :Initial questions: :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? :* What are "active editions"? :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. :-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? ::*No, not at this time. :* What are "active editions"? ::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04). :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? ::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure). :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? ::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]]. :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. ::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning <em>about</em> what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like. ::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought. :::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]]. :::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]]. :::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose. :::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable. :::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity. :::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects. :::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]]. :::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles. :::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research. :::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC) My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the "Wikinews refugees" to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote & adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a "regular" journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC) *:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Create an autopatrolled user group? == {{tracked|T428269|resolved}} I would like to propose creating the user group <code>autopatrolled</code> (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling. On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea :* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: "Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors." :* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects? : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. ::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? == Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC) == Draft inactivity policy == I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]]. However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC) : Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes == I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes. # First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]]. # Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as <code>delete</code> [but not <code>undelete</code> or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and <code>protect</code>), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions. # Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC) :#Yes, I agree. :#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos. :#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''"II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks"''. :::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to. :[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == New user what do I do here == I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful. (One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC) :Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Towards an Ethics policy == In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects. However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism. ::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted. ::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC) :AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC) == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == Hello community, The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Image not displaying == Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?<br> [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC) :Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC) == New nomination template(s) == I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Mobile friendly main page == Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC) == Main page titles == Currently, the title says "Wikiversity:Main Page", but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one): # Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.) # Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to <code>Welcome to Wikiversity</code> (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to <code><nowiki>Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!</nowiki></code>; the latter would display to me as <code>Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!</code> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC) == Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania == There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. * If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. * If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? Cheers, <span style="padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;">&ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|<span style="color:#ff9900;">+</span>]]</span> 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis<br>{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&diff=2816357&oldid=2807052}} == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> 5vdihizw0xk663se1v6dm6ylu7w3ba6 2816739 2816737 2026-06-24T16:10:10Z Koavf 147 /* Main page titles */ Reply 2816739 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025]] == I posted an edit request there 5 months ago, so I’ll be taking it to this page. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28640-56|&#126;2026-28640-56]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28640-56|talk]]) 23:33, 12 May 2026 (UTC) :What exactly is the problem? I don't understand what needs to change and why. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:35, 12 May 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] for further input. Someone is requesting a modification to [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to use {{tlx|Protected page text}}, but we might need to discuss whether to use the template. In the meantime, I'll start a sandbox version of the protected page text template. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::Sounds good -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:13, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::+1 Jtneill. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:59, 19 May 2026 (UTC) == Proposal to rehost Wikinews here == As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance. I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ===Votes=== *{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of "practicing journalism" a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC) *{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity<math>\not=</math> Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC) * {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on "Media & Democracy" syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that "rehost Wikinews here" would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}} ===Comments and questions=== :Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice. :Initial questions: :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? :* What are "active editions"? :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. :-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? ::*No, not at this time. :* What are "active editions"? ::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04). :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? ::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure). :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? ::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]]. :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. ::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning <em>about</em> what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like. ::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought. :::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]]. :::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]]. :::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose. :::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable. :::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity. :::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects. :::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]]. :::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles. :::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research. :::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC) My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the "Wikinews refugees" to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote & adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a "regular" journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC) *:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Create an autopatrolled user group? == {{tracked|T428269|resolved}} I would like to propose creating the user group <code>autopatrolled</code> (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling. On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea :* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: "Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors." :* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects? : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. ::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? == Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC) == Draft inactivity policy == I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]]. However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC) : Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes == I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes. # First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]]. # Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as <code>delete</code> [but not <code>undelete</code> or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and <code>protect</code>), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions. # Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC) :#Yes, I agree. :#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos. :#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''"II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks"''. :::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to. :[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == New user what do I do here == I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful. (One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC) :Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Towards an Ethics policy == In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects. However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism. ::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted. ::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC) :AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC) == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == Hello community, The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Image not displaying == Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?<br> [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC) :Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC) == New nomination template(s) == I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Mobile friendly main page == Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC) == Main page titles == Currently, the title says "Wikiversity:Main Page", but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one): # Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.) # Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to <code>Welcome to Wikiversity</code> (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to <code><nowiki>Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!</nowiki></code>; the latter would display to me as <code>Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!</code> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I don't have strong feelings on this. Changing to either or staying with the status quo are all fine to me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:10, 24 June 2026 (UTC) == Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania == There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. * If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. * If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? Cheers, <span style="padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;">&ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|<span style="color:#ff9900;">+</span>]]</span> 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis<br>{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&diff=2816357&oldid=2807052}} == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> mkc0608j5swvbpyaidf5hsaycznwj94 2816779 2816739 2026-06-25T00:04:09Z Jtneill 10242 /* Main page titles */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2816779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext#Protected edit request on 11 December 2025]] == I posted an edit request there 5 months ago, so I’ll be taking it to this page. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28640-56|&#126;2026-28640-56]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28640-56|talk]]) 23:33, 12 May 2026 (UTC) :What exactly is the problem? I don't understand what needs to change and why. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:35, 12 May 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] for further input. Someone is requesting a modification to [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to use {{tlx|Protected page text}}, but we might need to discuss whether to use the template. In the meantime, I'll start a sandbox version of the protected page text template. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::Sounds good -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:13, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::+1 Jtneill. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:59, 19 May 2026 (UTC) == Proposal to rehost Wikinews here == As many of you know, and mentioned here at the Colloquium, our sister project Wikinews recently closed, with all 31 active editions made read-only. [[User:BigKrow]] has asked about the prospect of writing news stories here and I suggested that since we already have [[School:Journalism]] and some resources related to the [[:Category:Journalism|broader topic of journalism]]. I would like to propose that we have continued and indefinite space for {{w|citizen journalism}} by essentially repurposing Wikinews into a sub-project here. The only special infrastructure that Wikinews required was [[:mw:Extension:DynamicPageList]], which was deactivated and caused issues due to a lack of maintenance. I will add this proposal to the site banner, but I recognize that that may be a conflict of interest, so if anyone requests that I remove it, I will. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:30, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :I would like to see this conversation go for at least 30 days to establish a consensus. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) ::A few days shy of 30, it seems obvious that this is not going to pass. So I '''withdraw''' as presumptively '''failed'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ===Votes=== *{{support}} as proposer (with BK's inspiration). I think that an ongoing experiment in citizen journalism is a fit and appropriate use of this site. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:35, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}}, hope to seeing ideas about this, and thank you @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 11:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Other than perhaps inflating the total number of pages reported, I see the idea of "practicing journalism" a worthy and relevant activity within the domain of Wikiversity. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:41, 14 May 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} Conditional on development of (a) community guidelines that ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose, and (b) clear, nested page-naming structures for projects. More detail below. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:48, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This proposal doesn't seem interested in expanding educational materials in journalism, but rather in providing space and protection for Wikinews contributors. But this is contrary to the goals of Wikiversity, and I'm not sure it's a good idea, even with regard to WMF. If WMF decides to close a project and another community lets it run on its domain, that's a bit of an undermining of WMF's and the community's decisions. Given that Wikiversity has had several conflicts with other communities and WMF in its history, I'm against it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *{{contra}} This seems like a proposal to continue the mission of WikiNews, but not a proposal specifically to improve Wikiversity. I concur with Juandev's comments. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 20:29, 30 May 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:05, 1 June 2026 (UTC) *{{oppose}} Wikiversity isn’t Wikinews and it also isn’t a dumping ground for anything not covered by other projects. It was already suggested, rather bafflingly, that Wikinews parasitize Wikipedia as a host. If it were allowed to freeload off of Wikiversity it would simply promote a view I and likely many others have— that Wikiversity (as it currently exists) has no standards and mostly just exists to host subpar content that wouldn’t be tolerated on any other Wikimedia site. Wikinews needs a new, non-Wikimedia host, and Wikiversity needs to get its act together by enforcing a minimum scope and standard for what it allows. --[[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:16, 4 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} per above. Wikiversity<math>\not=</math> Wikinews - not a good idea to mix the scope of projects. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 12:03, 8 June 2026 (UTC) * {{abstain}} I will abstain since I'm not an active Wikiversity contributor. But I just feel like Wikinews had a very clear and specific goal of providing news, and Wikiversity is just a different project with different goals. For me, it would be odd to rehost Wikinews here. But please do not count my vote, this is only a comment. --[[User:Antimundo|Antimundo]] ([[User talk:Antimundo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Antimundo|contribs]]) 13:19, 6 June 2026 (UTC) * {{oppose}} Although I think it's a pity that Wikinews is closed. --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 19:06, 8 June 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} In 2018 I initiated [[:Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] as a platform for disseminating public affairs events. In 2021 I officially initiated a podcast series on "Media & Democracy" syndicated for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]. In 2024 I converted it from irregular to fortnightly. I think this is all educational and supports the Wikiversity education mission, and I think that "rehost Wikinews here" would be appropriate. (I had some experience with Wikinews a few years ago. I felt it was too tightly controlled: Article submissions went stale, because I could not get official permission to publish and I could not get the information needed to understand what I was supposed to do to obtain the official permission. I would be opposed to rehosting Wikinews here if the policy similarly made it unreasonably difficult for volunteer contributor to get the information needed to meet the journalistic standards imposed by the overworked editors.) {{unsigned|DavidMCEddy}} ===Comments and questions=== :Definitely worthy of discussion, so I have no problem with the proposal in the sitenotice. :Initial questions: :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? :* What are "active editions"? :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[User:BigKrow/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. :-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:52, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :* Does this proposal include importing English Wikinews content e.g., to [[Wikinews]] subpages? ::*No, not at this time. :* What are "active editions"? ::*There were 30 other active editions of Wikinews in addition to English (e.g. [[:n:es:]]) at the time of universal closure (2026-05-04). :* How can Wikiversity navigate the concerns that lead to the closure of Wikinews? ::*One of the biggest issues was the problems with DPL, which is now irrelevant. Another was the lack of activity, which can be ameliorated by having it be part of an existing project instead of its own domain (e.g. some editions of Wikipedia host their own Wikinews already and those projects were not impacted by the closure). :* Are any changes to the scope of Wikinews proposed? ::*Not at this juncture. I would also propose as far as implemention goes that we would request a new namespace and that the material be more-or-less sequestered into its own ongoing project, like Wikijournal is or like the Cookbook and Wikijunior are at our sister [[:b:]]. :* How does [[Wikinews]] fit with the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]? What aligns well? Where might there be tension? :** e.g., I'm not sure that a page like [[Story/Manchester City moves two points behind Arsenal]] in and of itself will serve as an educational resource. ::*The process of citizen journalists practicing their craft in real-time and collaborating with others to do so is itself an education activity. We would essentially be hosting a real-time experiment in citizen journalism, online communities, and collaborative learning in addition to the prospect of spreading educational information from someone actually reading the news. I would propose that we could also make a more deliberate attempt to engage with learning <em>about</em> what does and doesn't work with collaborative news writing by experimentation (e.g. audio news, syndicating to other sites, incorporating freely-licensed news from other sources, writing hyper-local news, writing briefs versus longer-term reportage) and also seeing if the problems noted in the Task Force report that recommended closure can be overcome. Note that we have already done some local investigation about and learning about wiki-based journalism on Wikinews here at [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]]. We could continue that learning and refine the process, including incorporating journalism students from universities. As for tensions, Wikinews is the only sister project that must be done with a quick turn-around: if you take a long time to [[:s:|transcribe a book]], that's just how long it takes, but if you take a long time to write news, it ceases to be news entirely. Wikiversity has been a very slow-growing project that has definitely had some successes but has generally come together over a long period with most learning resources being individual passion projects (or sometimes, frankly, crankery) which would not work with collaborative news that requires more than just a single editor writing whatever he feels like. ::Please let me know any other questions/concerns and any other editors feel free to give your own perspective. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:13, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, Justin — it is food for thought. :::In attempting to understand how we've arrived here, I've summarised some of the background on this page: [[Wikinews]]. :::Perhaps it could be helpful to flesh out more of the vision / ideas / possibilities / challenges on that page? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:49, 14 May 2026 (UTC) :::*Having given it some thought, in principle, I support hosting [[citizen journalism]] on Wikiversity where it is clearly connected to a learning project and/or constitutes original research, both of which align strongly with [[Wikiversity:Mission|Wikiversity’s educational mission]]. :::*My chief concern is the potential for news content that is not clearly linked to the purpose of Wikiversity. To avoid this, some community-agreed guidelines would be prudent. These need not be overly restrictive; they should support boldness and experimentation while helping ensure alignment with Wikiversity's purpose. :::*Given the reported low and declining activity on Wikinews, it seems unlikely that English Wikiversity would be overwhelmed by an influx of news-related editing. My impression is that English Wikinews was the most active edition, but even so, many contributors are likely to disperse to other projects or cease editing altogether. A modest migration of interested editors to Wikiversity seems manageable. :::*At this stage, I do not think a dedicated namespace is necessary. Subpages under [[Wikinews]] or nested pages under relevant learning or research projects, or user-space draft pages should be suitable. I agree that [[Wikijournal]] offers a useful model, as do several existing course structures on Wikiversity. :::*I support [[User:Koavf]]’s suggestions about framing Wikinews activity explicitly around learning. This would create a distinctive space for experimenting with collaborative news production in ways that are pedagogically meaningful. I agree that the [[journalism studies and Wikinews]] project developed by David and Leigh Blackall through the University of Wollongong is an excellent example of the intersection between Wikiversity and Wikinews. The [[Wikinews]] page could evolve into a hub for such projects. :::*I've tidied the [[:Category:Wikinews|Wikinews category]] and merged some content into the [[Wikinews]] page. As part of a reinvigoration effort, please review these and related resources such as [[:Category:Journalism]] and [[School:Journalism]]. :::*A further argument in favour of this initiative is that Wikipedia explicitly excludes both news reporting and original research. So, there is value in maintaining spaces within the Wikimedia ecosystem where these forms of knowledge production can be openly developed and curated. Such work can, in turn, generate valuable evidence and source material that may later inform Wikipedia articles. :::*The closure of WMF-hosted Wikinews does not imply that open wiki-based news curation lacks value. Indeed, the closure documentation appears supportive of experimentation with alternative news models across Wikimedia projects, including through Wikipedia and Wikidata. In that context, Wikiversity seems a natural home for a Wikinews experiment, provided it is clearly grounded in learning and/or research. :::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:39, 15 May 2026 (UTC) My understanding towards Wikinews' failure is that everything takes too long to be approved for the publish status, which means that any breaking news would have already become days-old stale news. Wikinews has a brand recognition (for right or wrong reasons) than Wikiversity and I wonder how effective Wikiversity can attract the "Wikinews refugees" to edit here. And just a quick note on the governance. Since each Wikiversity language operates independently, each language has to vote & adopt this proposal independently. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:47, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :Your assessment about Wikinews is partially correct. I referenced it earlier, but to be explicit, there is a [[:m:Proposal for Closing Wikinews|report by a task force on sister projects]] that outlines their concerns. There are a few, one of which was the nature of the staleness of news. Thanks also for clarifying that this proposal is only relevant to en.wv and is not binding or even proposed for other editions of Wikiversity. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 15 May 2026 (UTC) *Note: I am not a regular here, and just visit Wikiversity for the WikiJournal project. Challenges of Wikinews included that it required timely reporting and fact-checking processes which differed greatly from the well-established ones in Wikipedia. Here in Wikiversity, there is the WikiJournal project, and that can take some some forms of journalism, just not breaking news reporting. I am in favor of salvaging parts of Wikinews if helpful. Could it, would it be feasible to adapt Wikijournal to accept some forms of news journalism, but just not the timed news reporting? For example, WikiJournal already is doing conference proceedings, and could likely do related event reports even months after the event ended. It could probably accept long-form investigative reporting, which is a sort of news that is not breaking news. I am not sure what the possibilities are, but I would prefer to build up systems that already work rather than import systems which had problems elsewhere. Thanks. [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 19:17, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *:I agree that there are certain kinds of journalism that are perfectly valid and not time-bound like breaking news reporting, so that won't suffer from the issues noted before. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:15, 22 May 2026 (UTC) *::@[[User:Bluerasberry|Bluerasberry]] WikiJournal is not interested in taking on news journalism. WikiJournal is publishing conference proceedings at the request of some Wikimedian educators, and conference proceedings is what a "regular" journal publishes. News journalism is quite different from this, and if WikiJournal starts to deviate towards publishing news journalism, it will create barrier towards future initiatives like being indexed in Medline or Web of Science, and may risk being delisted from Scopus. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:43, 5 June 2026 (UTC) *:::Thats a good point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:09, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Create an autopatrolled user group? == {{tracked|T428269|resolved}} I would like to propose creating the user group <code>autopatrolled</code> (autopatrolled user), in which for non-curators and non-custodians, their page creations and file uploads would be automatically marked as patrolled by the MediaWiki software. Custodians may grant the user group, at their discretion, to users who create good quality pages that do not need frequent patrolling. On a side note, the term {{tq|autopatroller}} would be used, but because we don't have non-curator/custodian patrollers (as we rely on curators and custodians to patrol), I suggest on using the term {{tq|autopatrolled user}}. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:31, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :'''Support''' re: the name, I don't really understand the reasoning, so I am '''neutral''' on that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:45, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :: Regarding the name, this is because as we don't have the patroller user group, we rely on curators and custodians to patrol new pages and file uploads. Does that make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:39, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::Not really, but I don't think it's the most important thing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:42, 29 May 2026 (UTC) :::: We'll decide on the name later. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:48, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh, please don't let me stand in the way. I'm just not very smart, so don't hold up a matter on my account. I didn't want to derail the proposal, which is a fine and sensible one. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:16, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : '''Support''' - sounds like a good idea :* Suggest adding a draft section about this group to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. There is a statement in the Introduction of the page that I'm not sure if its correct and at least could be improved: "Wikiversity also uses an autopatrol right, meaning trusted users' contributions are automatically marked as checked so patrollers can focus on reviewing newer or anonymous editors." :* Regarding autopatroller vs autropatrolled user, what terms are used on similar WMF wiki projects? : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:28, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::# I would create a starting page about the user groups, with experienced editors expanding the page. A summarized part of that page would also be added to [[Wikiversity:Patrolling]]. ::# For a similar example, English Wikipedia uses the term {{tq|Autopatrolled}}, just that term only. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 30 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]: the autopatroller user group has been implemented here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:14, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == How much of Wikiversity’s content is LLM slop? == Because it seems like a non-trivial amount, along with AI slop images as well. Is there some kind of AI cleanup project established yet? [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 01:20, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :We have discussed AI but I don't know of any explicit initiative to find and delete AI-generated noise. Individual modules have been deleted for having been made by AI. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:50, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :Recently agreed [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|policy]] welcome users to tag AI generated pages. Me personally I am not against the use of AI. What is the difference in abstract schematic image created by a human and the same by an AI. If the users does not have finances to pay digital artest and you dont want to let them use AI, would you pay the artest for them? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:07, 8 June 2026 (UTC) ::Wikimedia has a lot of ''volunteer'' artists who can illustrate if asked. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Interesting! That's good to know. Where can we find the volunteer artists for illustrating? [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 20:11, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::Wikimedia commons has [[commons:Commons:Graphic Lab/Illustration workshop]] [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 02:18, 10 June 2026 (UTC) == Draft inactivity policy == I created [[Wikiversity:Inactivity policy]] as a start. Any experienced Wikiversity user may feel free to expand it. This is also one-to-two step(s) towards opting out of the [[m:Admin activity review|AAR process]]. However, I made a bold change to reduce the response timeframe from one month to two weeks. In addition, should we reduce the inactivity timeframe to one year? For the latter, most projects use that timeframe and I suggested this for consistency. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:57, 4 June 2026 (UTC) :I support those suggestions. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:55, 4 June 2026 (UTC) : Juandev has posted some comments on the [[Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy|talk page]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:30, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == Proposed user group and/or possible policy changes == I want to discuss about user group and possible policy changes. # First, interface administrators. I don't think we should allow interface administrators to remove their permission from their own account, since we have multiple active bureaucrats and we can ask them to remove the permission when done, or for them to add a temporary grant. This is according to the [[Wikiversity:IA|current IA policy]]. I also left [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|my thoughts on the relevant talk page]]. # Second, curators. Given that curators have some sensitive custodian rights (such as <code>delete</code> [but not <code>undelete</code> or similar rights that allow viewing deleted content, unless the curatorship process is RFA-like] and <code>protect</code>), it would probably make more sense only for bureaucrats to grant and remove it, on par with them granting (but not removing) custodian permissions. # Third, about probationary custodians. [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians]] is currently marked as historical, and the process might still exist on [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. Therefore, to maintain consistency with [[Wikiversity:Curatorship#How does one become a curator?]], I propose that we repeal the probationary custodianship process and change it more or less to align with the curatorship process, effectively making probationary custodians permanent ones. However, custodian mentors would still be retained. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:55, 5 June 2026 (UTC) :#Yes, I agree. :#Thats a good point, but I dont know. At least I dont think its a good idea that both groups i.e. crats and custodiants can do that, it may create chaos. :#Another good point. It seems to me that the current situation is somewhat unclear and should be clarified. I understand the original status of [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians|Probationary custodians]] as a historicall and invalid, but at the same time I consider myself a probationary custodian, because on the Wikiversity:Custodianship page in the ''[[Wikiversity:Custodianship#How does one become a custodian?|How does one become a custodian?]]'' section it says, I quote, ''"II ...then you will be approved as a probationary custodian for a period of at least four weeks"''. :::Mentors should definitely be kept, but for certain applicants the probation and mentorship should be abolished. For example, if someone was an active custodian for 5 years, then loses their rights or gives them up for a year and then wants to resume their custodial activities, there is no reason for them to undergo a training period. It burdens both the mentors and the community with double voting. The only exception could be a situation where policies or tools for custodians change significantly during that year, or the candidate wants to. :[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == New user what do I do here == I love wikipedia and the wikiversity project seems super interesting. However I know very little about wikiversity and would like to know how i can best contribute to the project. Also if there are forums or discord or reddit that would be very helpful. (One last thing is it normal that my userboxes don't work here) {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :Hey {{ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I've left a welcome message on your talk page so that should provide you a plethora of useful links for you to look at so you can familiarize yourself with the project. Also, feel free to create the userboxes you need. Wikiversity doesn't have as many userboxes as Wikipedia. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:45, 8 June 2026 (UTC) :Thank you very much :) hope to contribute a lot. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 21:50, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Towards an Ethics policy == In connection with the [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Removal of Wikidebates|discussion of Wikidebates]], I said that it would be good to establish a policy on ethics, or rather a boundary between ethical and unethical content, so that we don't have to discuss individual cases. In addition, today we also have some global policies that prohibit, for example, attacks on members of the Wikimedia movement or undermining other projects. However, at the very beginning, I would start by collecting your opinions. What content or what research should not be allowed on Wikiversity? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 05:52, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :One ethical issue that I think should be non-controversial is related to good faith in the learning modules. So, learning materials should not be hoaxes or encourage behavior or methods that don't work or that misrepresent the facts or the likelihood of something occurring, etc. and authors should also not plagiarize or misrepresent authorship, etc. That was quite a run-on, but I hope that others can tease out what I mean here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:39, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::I look at it from a practical perspective. We can give that to the policy, but I see the problem in that we are not able to check it except plagiarism. ::Plagiarism can be partially detected during patrolling. I see a new text, I put part of it in Google and I check if it is copied from the web. It is a problem with copying from books or other offline sources, but sometimes it happens that someone finds out that something is copied from somewhere and it can be deleted. ::The biggest issue we have here is that we are missing Wikipedia's control mechanism: references. Only some types of resources on Wikiversity require references. In-line references are not often used in courses, exercises, lectures, etc. We are thus deprived of one of the excellent control mechanisms and the only option is for the increase in the number of members with various qualifications to check it for their colleagues. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:59, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Having a policy and enforcing that policy are indeed two different things. If we are only concerned with issues that we can definitively enforce, then that will definitely change this conversation. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:06, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:55, 13 June 2026 (UTC) :AI generated content should not be allowed as it is inherently plagiarism. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 08:14, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::And if the user mention it was generated by an AI? Note that there is something called as public domain, that is the author wave its rights. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:53, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Plagiarism isn’t copyright violation. Crediting the AI is not crediting the authors the AI stole from without credit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 10:18, 9 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I see, now I understand your point. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:56, 13 June 2026 (UTC) == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == Hello community, The Wikimedia Foundation has provided [[foundation:Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|a single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish Wikipedias and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. Please [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|the talk page]]. –– [[User:STei (WMF)|STei (WMF)]] ([[User talk:STei (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/STei (WMF)|contribs]]) 18:12, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the notice. In case anyone is not clear, we cannot locally change the text at the footer, as it [[:mw:Manual:Footer|requires access to the server settings]]. If we locally needed to change it, we would have to file a ticket at [[:phab:]]. Since the above was sent by someone from the WMF, I think they are on it and it will be updated without any action from anyone here. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:24, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Image not displaying == Can anyone work out why this image isn't displaying?<br> [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Physics/POTD 10]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:45, 11 June 2026 (UTC) :Not sure, but it was an issue with the file itself and either way, it should be (and I have since done this) replaced with the SVG [[:File:Telescope-schematic.svg]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:59, 11 June 2026 (UTC) == New nomination template(s) == I created {{tlx|Nomination}} when someone requests curator or custodian permissions, which often at least require mentorship. On the other hand, I might create {{tlx|Nomination 2}}, in which the latter does not have a section about mentorship (often used for bureaucrat or interface administrator nominations). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 12 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:00, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Mobile friendly main page == Hello, I have recently been using wikiversity on mobile and unlike wikipedia some images and boxes stick out instead of all having a set width which means you can scroll a little side to side, which makes the site feel a bit unfinished. Its just a suggestion but I think it will wake the user experience much better {{unsigned|AUBSTRAWBS}} :{{Ping|AUBSTRAWBS}} I don't use a smartphone. Can you give me more details or even take some screenshots? You can upload them at [[:c:Category:English Wikiversity screenshots]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:30, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::Hi i uploaded an image of the problem. Since some of the images are larger than the screen and not adjusted to fit they stick out and makes the page larger which lets you scroll right and have a big white rectangle on the side [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks. I agree that this is an issue, but it's a pretty minor-to-moderate one to me and I don't think I will be able to dedicate time to fix it myself. Showing it to others here is useful in case someone else wants to tinker with the CSS to resolve it. Thanks for bringing it to the community's attention. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:42, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::I do know CSS as I like to maintain a blog online so I could try and fix it but I don't know if I have the access to do that, would i need to be a curator/ custodian. Alternatively i could edit a sandbox version of the main page and then send it to someone. [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 20:00, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :::::Oh great. There are a lot of draft versions of the main page like [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Draft version 0.2]], so you can make [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Sandbox]] if you want and edit there. If you can tinker it to your liking, I can edit the main page. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:14, 18 June 2026 (UTC) ::::::thank you, i'll check it out [[User:AUBSTRAWBS|AUBSTRAWBS]] ([[User talk:AUBSTRAWBS|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AUBSTRAWBS|contribs]]) 22:16, 18 June 2026 (UTC) == Main page titles == Currently, the title says "Wikiversity:Main Page", but in my opinion, it's too basic. I would like to propose changing it with the following options (you may only pick one): # Option 1: Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank, giving the main page a portal-like design (as with English Wikipedia, English Wikibooks, etc.) # Option 2: Modify [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] to <code>Welcome to Wikiversity</code> (for unregistered users), and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to <code><nowiki>Welcome to Wikiversity, $1!</nowiki></code>; the latter would display to me as <code>Welcome to Wikiversity, Codename Noreste!</code> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:34, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : Pinging @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] for input above. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:03, 24 June 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I don't have strong feelings on this. Changing to either or staying with the status quo are all fine to me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:10, 24 June 2026 (UTC) : I like the option of being consistent with Wikipedia and Wikibooks -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:04, 25 June 2026 (UTC) == Wiki x AI preconference day @ Wikimania == There will be a preconference day at Wikimania about [[meta:Artificial_intelligence/2026_Wiki_AI | Wiki AI]]. It will be mostly offline, but there will be at least one hybrid session for demos of community-developed AI tools and workflows. * If you've built something cool, that is a chance to show it off, list it on the gallery of tools in progress, and get feedback. * If you could ask the people shaping AI on the wikis (WMF, tool builders, model trainers, GLAM and policy folks) a question, what would it be? Cheers, <span style="padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;">&ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|<span style="color:#ff9900;">+</span>]]</span> 23:12, 20 June 2026 (UTC) and Alaexis<br>{{comment|1=Copied from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FUsing_generative_AI&diff=2816357&oldid=2807052}} == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 17:12, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> kxgnf6m37uwtanvewqfg2ql9xrb8vcn 4 1558 2816666 2816640 2026-06-24T12:33:47Z MathXplore 2888076 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Leonidmarshall|Leonidmarshall]] ([[User_talk:Leonidmarshall|talk]]) to last version by [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2815606 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}} phlij3i0lq7l17sacctmpzowd8epftu 0 4041 2816718 2795364 2026-06-24T15:02:15Z Lbocquet 3096797 2816718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{web design/header}} A dynamic website is a website that generates page content programmatically for each request. Well-known dynamic websites include [[wikipedia:Wikipedia|Wikipedia]], which uses the [[MediaWiki]] application to serve millions of articles from a database, and platforms like [[wikipedia:Reddit|Reddit]], [[wikipedia:GitHub|GitHub]], and most e-commerce and blogging platforms, where content is assembled per-request from structured data. This is in contrast to a traditional static website which can be represented by simple text files that don't change or require extra server-side processing per request (such as a website that could be written with just [[HTML]] and [[CSS]]). Static sites are faster to serve and simpler to host. It is worth mentioning that in modern times, the classification of static vs. dynamic sites is usually more of a context-specific definition than a certain universal distinction. Modern development blends the two approaches, serving pre-rendered pages that have dynamic components that connect to [[wikipedia:API|APIs]]. Still, this differentiation is possible and useful from a certain architectural perspective in order to determine the configuration of networked resources that will be needed to develop, deploy, and maintain the website. Content for dynamic websites is typically produced by a servier-side application that may query a database, apply [[wikipedia:Business_logic|business logic]], or personalize output based on user input, session state, or other runtime conditions. All websites require a server to respond to user requests. The server for a dynamic website has to do extra processing in order to respond with content that is customized for each request. When a [[wikipedia:Client–server_model|client]] navigates to a URL or route in order to request a web page, the web server passes the request through an application layer (such as [[wikipedia:Common_Gateway_Interface|CGI]], [[wikipedia:Web_Server_Gateway_Interface|WSGI]], or [[wikipedia:Asynchronous_Server_Gateway_Interface|ASGI]]) which then processes the request and returns custom [[wikipedia:HTML|HTML]] and other content to the client's browser. The application layer typically relies on accessing data that is stored in a relational [[SQL]] database like [[wikipedia:MySQL|MySQL]] or [[wikipedia:PostgreSQL|PostgreSQL]], but of course a web app can retrieve and compose data from any online source. This extra processing step performed by the app layer allows a single [[wikipedia:URL|URL]] to serve different content depending on context, such as a logged-in user's profile page or the results of a search query. The servers and applications and connected resources for dynamic websites are provisioned and programmed by "[[wikipedia:Front_end_and_back_end|backend]]" engineers. These engineers are able to utilize a plethora of technologies to compose potentially sophisticated backend systems. == Server-side technologies == Many programming languages and frameworks can be used to build server-side web applications, including: * [[wikipedia:Go_(programming_language)|Go]] * [[Python]] * [[wikipedia:JavaScript|JavaScript]] ([[wikipedia:Node.js|Node.js]]) * [[Programming:Ruby|Ruby]] * [[Topic:PHP|PHP]] -- [[Dynamic websites with PHP]] * [[Programming:ASP|ASP]] Including the [[Programming:.NET|.NET Framework]] * [[Topic:Perl|Perl]] Note that Perl was the whole start of the server-side scripting for people who couldn't afford to buy or to learn the alternatives. Powerful dynamic website applications can also be built using almost any bigger programming language (C, C++, Pascal for example) which speeds up overall execution time of the script. Using PHP or other applications is a bit of pain as the applications are quite slow because they need to interpretate the source code, compile and execute it. Whereas, compiled applications are only executed either using SAPI or CGI interface. == Web servers == Dynamic websites are typically served through a web server that supports one or more application interfaces. Common web servers include: * [[w:Apache HTTP Server|Apache HTTP Server]] * [[w:nginx|nginx]] * Microsoft [[w:IIS|IIS]] == Further reading == * A common dynamic web design pattern: [[http://www.theserverside.com/tt/articles/article.tss?l=RedirectAfterPost "Redirect After Post"] by Michael Jouravlev 2004. * [http://developer.yahoo.com/ypatterns/ "Yahoo! Design Pattern Library"] * [http://www.37signals.com/papers/introtopatterns/ "An Introduction to Using Patterns in Web Design] by Ryan Singer 2004 * [http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2008/07/04/web-form-design-patterns-sign-up-forms/ "Web Form Design Patterns: Sign-Up Forms"] and [http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2008/07/08/web-form-design-patterns-sign-up-forms-part-2/ "Web Form Design Patterns: Sign-Up Forms, Part 2"] (who wrote this?) * [http://www.ddj.com/architect/184414538 "Design Patterns for Web Programming"] by Al Williams 2002 {{web design}} [[Category:Websites]] t8vf7ma8dkqgf30l0tpf2wxxzc0wu27 0 8920 2816721 2102448 2026-06-24T15:03:44Z Lbocquet 3096797 2816721 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Tux.svg|float|right|60px]] [[Linux server administration]] is one of the [[System administration|server administration]] [[Wikiversity:Learning projects|learning project]]s. Linux server administration studies the use of the [[Linux]] [[Operating Systems|operating system]] as an all purpose server. ==What is Linux?== '''[[Operating Systems/Linux|Linux]]''', or GNU/Linux, refers to any Unix-like computer operating system which uses the [[Linux kernel]]. It is one of the most prominent examples of open source development and free software as well as user generated software; its underlying source code is available for anyone to use, modify, and redistribute freely. ''See the [[w:Linux|Linux]] article at Wikipedia for much more information'' ==Choosing a distribution== [[Image:Wikimedia-servers-2006-05-09.svg|thumb|right|200px|The [[m:Wikimedia servers|Wikimedia server farm]]]] [[w:Linux distribution|Linux distribution]]s are available in a very wide variety. Choosing only one is a difficult task. Popular examples that have been around for a while are * [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]] (RHEL) * [[w:Fedora core|Fedora core]] * [[w:Debian|Debian]] * [[w:Slackware|Slackware]] * [[w:Mandriva Linux|Mandrake]] (now called Mandriva Linux) * [[Ubuntu]] * [[w:SUSE Linux|SUSE]] Others like [[w:Knoppix|Knoppix]] offers live CD experience. ''See the [[w:Comparison of Linux distributions|Comparison of Linux distributions]] at Wikipedia for an exhaustive list'' NOTE: Wikiversity runs from [[m:Wikimedia servers|Wikimedia servers]] using several distributions including Red Hat Enterprise Linux and [[w:Ubuntu|Ubuntu]]. ==A curriculum for the Linux users and administrators == This is for future contributers to add to and develop. '''Level 1 : Introduction to Linux''' *What is Linux? *[[How Linux Began and Origins of Linux]] *The GNU Project *Platforms, Applications & Distributions *Linux Resources *Minimum System Requirements *The Fedora Project *Red Hat Linux 7,8,9 vs. Enterprise 3.x *Chapter 1 Review '''Level 2 : Linux Installation''' *Is Your Hardware Compatible? *System Requirements Table *Initiating an Installation *[[HDD|Hard Disk]] Management: fdisk, [[linux/mdadm]], [[/disk usage/]], [[/blkid/]], [[/lsblk/]] *Selecting an Installation Method *Virtual Consoles *Initiation Installation from Boot Media *Welcome Screen and Boot Options *Language Selection *Keyboard & Mouse Configuration *Installation Type Options *Disk Partitioning Setup *Boot Loader Configuration *Network Configuration *Firewall Configuration *Language Support Selection *Time Zone Configuration: [[NTP services]] *Root Password Configuration *Authentication Configuration *Desktop Configuration *Demo - Fedora Installation *[[/Directory structure/]]<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard</ref> *Chapter 2 Review '''Level 3 : Package Managers: Red Hat Package Manager "RPM"''' *What is [[RPM]]? *Demo - Reflection X *Downloading RPM's *RPM's 5 Modes of Operation *Installing with RPM *Installation Errors/Remedies *Uninstalling Packages *Upgrading RPM's *Freshening RPM's *Querying RPM's *Verifying RPM's *Additional RPM Resources *Other package management systems: [[/dpkg/]], [[/apt/]], [[yum]] *Chapter 3 Review '''Level 4 : Managing Users''' *Linux User Types *Adding Users *Usernames *Passwords *User Home Directories *UID and GID *User Groups *User Primary vs. Private Groups *Sharing *Files Built When Users are Created *Files Checked by [[Bash]] *Activating the User Manager GUI *System Created Users & Groups *Command Line User Deletion *Chapter 4 Review '''Level 5 : Partitioning and Filesystems''' *Devices & Device Nodes *IDE Devices *SCSI Devices *IDE Device Naming *SCSI Chain *Filesystem Management Commands *Partition Planning *Partition Types *Supported Filesystems *Creating Filesystems *Files: ([[touch (command)]]) *Formatting devices: Floppies / USB *More Filesystem Details *Link Count *Mounting Filesystems *Unmounting Filesystems *Mount Command Options *Mounting Remote Filesystems *fstab File *Swap Space *Special Case: Swap *Special Case: Automounter *Quotas *Maintenance & Repair *Adding a New Hard Drive *Recovering a Partition * [[LVM]] and [[ZFS]] *Demo -fstab File *Chapter 5 Review '''Level 6 : [[/Backup and Restore/]]''' *Types of Backups *Device Naming Conventions * Chapter 6 Review '''Level 7 : Startup and Shutdown''' * The Boot Process * Run Levels * Configuring Process Fields * Inittab Example * In The Beginning.Init * The /etc/rc.d Directory * /etc/rcX.d Script Sequencing * Processes: <code>ps</code> and <code>pstree</code> utils * Stop & Stop Services: [[systemd]] * The /etc/rc.d/rc.local File * Shutting Down Properly * Methods of Rebooting * Booting into Single-User Mode * Creating a Boot Diskette * Demo - Startup & Shutdown Procedures * Chapter 7 Review '''Level 8 : Compiling the Kernel''' * What is the Linux Kernel? * Why Compile the Kernel? * Before You Get Started * Four Kernel Upgrade Paths * Check Your Tool Kit * 4 Stages to Compile the Kernel * Patching the Kernel * Demo - Manually Compile the Kernel * Chapter 8 Review '''Level 9 : [[/Scheduling/]]''' * 2 Major Scheduling Daemons * <code>[[crontab]]</code> command * The <code>[[/etc/crontab]]</code> File * Simple /etc/crontab Example * Complex /etc/crontab Example * An actual <code>/etc/crontab</code> file * Sample <code>/etc/cron.daily/</code> directory * Use /etc/cron.allow or /etc/cron.deny * Starting & Stopping cron * The at Command * Anacron * Starting & Stopping Anacron * Sample /etc/anacrontab File * Demo - Scheduling * Chapter 9 Review '''Level 10 : Basic Networking Concepts''' * Platform Compatibility * Physical Network Support * Protocol Suite Support * Network Device Names * Network Kernel Modules * [[ifconfig]] Command * ifup & ifdown Scripts * Interface Configuration * Non-root User Control * Multiple IP's on a Single Interface * Client DHCP/BOOTP * Global Parameters * Configuration Utilities * Network Tools * Demo - Reconfigure Network Information * Demo - Sysconfig Directory * Chapter 10 Review '''Level 11 : Printing''' * Linux Printing over the Last 2 Years * Setup Printing * Common Unix Printing System "CUPS" * Printing Flow in a CUPS Environment * CUPS Browser Interface * Linux-Supported Printers * Printer Configuration Tools * User Command Interface * Starting & Stopping Printing Services * lpr Examples * lpq Examples * lprm Examples * lpc Usage * Printing from Linux Applications * redhat-config-printer * Availability * Troubleshooting Printing * Chapter 11 Review '''Level 12 : Linux Security''' * Basic Levels of Security * Physical Security * Grub Security * User-based Security * User Accounts & Patterns * Typical User No-No's * Delegating Root Authority * Password Security * Pluggable Authentication Modules "PAM" * Permissions * File and directory permissions * Controlling Permissions * Files & [[Filesystem]] Security * Filesystem Monitoring * Avoiding Trojan Horses * [[Encryption]] * Introduction to [[iptables]]: filters and SNAT/DNAT * [[/hardening/]]<ref>https://dev-sec.io/baselines/linux/</ref> * Response Strategies * Demo - Base Permissions * Chapter 12 Review ''' Level 13 : Popular Linux Services''' * SAMBA Naming, overview and components * Exploring/Browsing Directories * Browsing Resources with Linux Commands * Letting Linux Use a Windows Printer * Official SAMBA Website * Web Servers: ** Apache Web Server: Naming confusion and configuration files ** [[nginx]] * What is Squid? * Demo - Connecting to a Linux Machine * Demo - Getting a list of Running Services '''Level 14 : Operation and Monitoring''' * [[Configuration management]] * [[Monitoring]] tools: ([[Nagios]], [[/Zabbix/]]), [[w:Icinga]] '''Level 15 : [[/Performance and Troubleshooting/]]''' '''Level 16: [[Benchmarking tools]]''' ==See also== * [[Linux/Installation|Installing Linux]] * [[Linux/Basic commands]] * [[Linux/Directories]] * [[dbus]] and dbus-uuidgen utility {{CourseCat}} 0iwj1z6hx4wnfky7mj47kqbg1vkq4o5 0 38586 2816720 2581834 2026-06-24T15:03:07Z Lbocquet 3096797 2816720 wikitext text/x-wiki First you might need a clarification of what a web server is, please refer to [[w:web server|web server]] for details. In the following we will assume, you have got a running computer and you are trying to set up the software environment for serving your web pages. The instructions for installing depend on the type of computer that you are using and which web server do you choose to install, for example [[Apache]] or [[nginx]] web server: install [[/Apache web server/]] and install [[/Nginx web server/]]. === Windows Webserver with XAMPP === This is very straightforward, you simply search for XAMPP on the internet and download the windows installer. Permission problems for Vista have come up, but these are solved by choosing the root of C: drive as the install directory and should be handled for you. It would be beneficial to change it to C:\xampp drive if it isn't already for simplicity. It will also prompt for whether you want to install the Apache web server and mySQL database as services. If you select as a service, the software will be started during the boot; if not, you will need to manually start and stop them from the XAMPP control panel in the program listings every time you need them. Your choice should reflect how much memory and processing power you have. This software package is mainly for sandbox testing of web pages on personal computers, not actual web servers for security reasons. ==== Related resources ==== * [[w:XAMPP]] * [https://www.apachefriends.org/en/xampp-windows.html Windows installer] === Sun Solaris Apache webserver === The [[Solaris 10]] release includes the Apache webserver. ''(note: a standard Solaris install includes '''two''' versions of the Apache webserver; you probably want to use the newer apache2 version.)'' First, create a configuration file by using the commands: <pre> cd /etc/apache2 cp httpd.conf-example httpd.conf </pre> Then, edit <code>httpd.conf</code> by reading the comments in the file and making the needed changes. The web server is started using the command: <pre> svcadm enable apache2 </pre> The directory <code>/var/apache2/htdocs</code> is where the web pages are stored. == Lessons == # Install [[/Apache web server/]] # Install [[/Nginx web server/]] ==See also== * [[Wikipedia: Apache HTTP Server]] * [[Wikipedia: HTTP]] [[Category:Server administration]] [[Category:Web server software]] lffv5kpcvh9yaznxes0n6frfa4ymnmy 0 139384 2816701 2816603 2026-06-24T14:12:32Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2816701 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260624.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260624.pdf|B]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 2zksa498r0gmouwnh2qhy98ala08jmo 0 141600 2816797 2815143 2026-06-25T05:29:06Z Jtneill 10242 + All 2816797 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=14}}{{title|Motivation and emotion (Book)}}<div align="center"><small>Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science</small></div> <div align="center"><small>''Use this page to navigate over 1,800 chapters''</small></div>{{RoundBoxBottom}}__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ ==Search== <inputbox> type=search width=20 namespaces=Main** prefix=Motivation and emotion/Book searchbuttonlabel=Search book chapters bgcolor=transparent break=no </inputbox> ==Volumes== <div p align = "center"> {| class="wikitable" |- |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/All|All]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2025]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]] |} </div> ==Topics== Browse by topic: {{#categorytree:Motivation and emotion/Book|depth=0|mode=categories}} <!-- [[Special:PrefixIndex/{{PAGENAME}}/|subpages]] --> ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {{/Overview}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} Browse the chapters by year, topic, or enter a search term above. Or continue reading [[/Overview|about this project ...]] ==See also== * Author guidelines ** [[../Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] ** [[../Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] * [[/Chapters by year|Count of chapters by year]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Cover|Cover]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]<!-- * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Overview|Overview]] --> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book| ]] 0hmfvdrrk16h6xw9lycpcif57gb0ryq 2816798 2816797 2026-06-25T05:30:20Z Jtneill 10242 2816798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=14}}{{title|Motivation and emotion (Book)}}<div align="center"><small>Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science</small></div> <div align="center"><small>''Use this page to navigate over 1,800 chapters''</small></div>{{RoundBoxBottom}}__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ ==Search== <inputbox> type=search width=20 namespaces=Main** prefix=Motivation and emotion/Book searchbuttonlabel=Search book chapters bgcolor=transparent break=no </inputbox> ==Volumes== <div p align = "center"> {| class="wikitable" |- |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2025]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]] |} </div> ==Topics== Browse by topic: {{#categorytree:Motivation and emotion/Book|depth=0|mode=categories}} <!-- [[Special:PrefixIndex/{{PAGENAME}}/|subpages]] --> ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {{/Overview}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} Browse the chapters by year, topic, or enter a search term above. Or continue reading [[/Overview|about this project ...]] ==See also== * Author guidelines ** [[../Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] ** [[../Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] * [[/Chapters by year|Count of chapters by year]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Cover|Cover]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]<!-- * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Overview|Overview]] --> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book| ]] 6i8rhjvowdownaprvm7nenv5gnvw884 2816799 2816798 2026-06-25T05:31:28Z Jtneill 10242 + All (hidden) 2816799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=14}}{{title|Motivation and emotion (Book)}}<div align="center"><small>Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science</small></div> <div align="center"><small>''Use this page to navigate over 1,800 chapters''</small></div>{{RoundBoxBottom}}__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ ==Search== <inputbox> type=search width=20 namespaces=Main** prefix=Motivation and emotion/Book searchbuttonlabel=Search book chapters bgcolor=transparent break=no </inputbox> ==Volumes== <div p align = "center"> {| class="wikitable" |- <!-- [[Motivation and emotion/Book/All|All]] --> |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2025]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]] |[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]] |} </div> ==Topics== Browse by topic: {{#categorytree:Motivation and emotion/Book|depth=0|mode=categories}} <!-- [[Special:PrefixIndex/{{PAGENAME}}/|subpages]] --> ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {{/Overview}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} Browse the chapters by year, topic, or enter a search term above. Or continue reading [[/Overview|about this project ...]] ==See also== * Author guidelines ** [[../Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] ** [[../Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] * [[/Chapters by year|Count of chapters by year]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Cover|Cover]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]<!-- * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Overview|Overview]] --> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book| ]] b3hbvhkkgjxduabgvtv5lt56ngaeucq 0 171005 2816711 2816609 2026-06-24T14:27:31Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2816711 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260624.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] cemgoy4l05zn23yhy82kb4kgaiey82x 2 203163 2816788 2786000 2026-06-25T04:05:10Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Is God a Programmer? Analyzing the simulation universe hypothesis at the Planck scale''' The [[w:simulation hypothesis |simulation hypothesis]] is the proposal that all of reality, including the Earth and the rest of the universe, could be an artificial simulation, such as a computer simulation. [[w:Neil_deGrasse_Tyson |Neil deGrasse Tyson]] put the odds at 50-50 that our entire existence is a program on someone else’s hard drive <ref>Are We Living in a Computer Simulation? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/</ref>. [[w:David_Chalmers |David Chalmers]] noted “We in this universe can create simulated worlds and there’s nothing remotely spooky about that. Our creator isn’t especially spooky, it’s just some teenage hacker in the next universe up. Turn the tables, and we are essentially gods over our own computer creations <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqbS5qJU8PA, David Chalmers, Serious Science</ref> <ref>The Matrix as Metaphysics, David Chalmers http://consc.net/papers/matrix.pdf</ref>. The commonly postulated [[w:Ancestor_simulation |ancestor simulation]] approach, which [[w:Nick Bostrom |Nick Bostrom]] called "the simulation argument", argues for "high-fidelity" simulations of ancestral life that would be indistinguishable from reality to the simulated ancestor. However this simulation variant can be traced back to an 'organic base reality' (the original programmer ancestors and their physical planet). The Programmer God hypothesis <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects</ref> conversely states that a (deep universe) simulation began with the big bang and was programmed by an external intelligence (external to the physical universe), the Programmer by definition a God in the creator of the universe context. Our universe in its entirety, down to the smallest detail, and including life-forms, is within the simulation, the laws of nature, at their most fundamental level, are coded rules running on top of the simulation operating system. The operating system itself is mathematical (and potentially the origin of mathematics). Any candidate for a Programmer-God simulation-universe source code must satisfy these conditions; :1. It can generate physical structures from mathematical forms. :2. The sum universe is dimensionless (simply data on a celestial hard disk). :3. We must be able to use it to derive the laws of physics (because the source code is the origin of the laws of nature, and the laws of physics are our observations of the laws of nature). :4. The mathematical logic must be unknown to us (the Programmer is a non-human intelligence). :5. The coding should have an 'elegance' commensurate with the Programmer's level of skill. == Philosophy == Physicist [[w:Eugene Wigner |Eugene Wigner]] ([[w:The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences |The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]) <ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wigner | first1 = E. P. | authorlink = Eugene Wigner| doi = 10.1002/cpa.3160130102 | title = The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences. Richard Courant lecture in mathematical sciences delivered at New York University, May 11, 1959 | journal = Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics | volume = 13 | pages = 1–14 | year = 1960 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1960CPAM...13....1W }}</ref> <blockquote>The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of mathematics for the formulation of the laws of physics is a wonderful gift which we neither understand nor deserve. </blockquote> === Discussion === [[w:Philosophy of mathematics |Philosophy of mathematics]] is that branch of philosophy which attempts to answer questions such as: ‘why is mathematics useful in describing nature?’, ‘in which sense, if any, do mathematical entities such as numbers exist?’ and ‘why and how are mathematical statements true?’ This reasoning comes about when we realize (through thought and experimentation) how the behavior of Nature follows mathematics to an extremely high degree of accuracy. The deeper we probe the laws of Nature, the more the physical world disappears and becomes a world of pure math. Mathematical realism holds that mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind. We do not invent mathematics, but rather discover it. Triangles, for example, are real entities that have an existence <ref>- http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/platonism-mathematics/</ref>. The mathematical universe refers to universe models whose underlying premise is that the physical universe has a mathematical origin, the physical (particle) universe is a construct of the mathematical universe, and as such physical reality is a perceived reality. It can be considered a form of [[w:Pythagoreanism | Pythagoreanism]] or [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] in that it proposes the existence of ''mathematical objects''; and a form of [[w:philosophy of mathematics | mathematical monism]] in that it denies that anything exists except these ''mathematical objects''. Physicist [[w:Max Tegmark | Max Tegmark]] in his book "Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality"<ref name="Tegmark1998">{{cite journal|last=Tegmark |first=Max |date=November 1998 |title=Is "the Theory of Everything" Merely the Ultimate Ensemble Theory? |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=270 |issue=1 |pages=1–51 |doi=10.1006/aphy.1998.5855 |arxiv = gr-qc/9704009 |bibcode = 1998AnPhy.270....1T }}</ref><ref>M. Tegmark 2014, "[http://mathematicaluniverse.org Our Mathematical Universe]", Knopf</ref> proposed that ''Our external physical reality is a mathematical structure''.<ref name="Tegmark2008">{{cite journal|last=Tegmark |first=Max |date=February 2008 |title=The Mathematical Universe |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=101–150 |doi=10.1007/s10701-007-9186-9 |arxiv=0704.0646|bibcode = 2008FoPh...38..101T }}</ref> That is, the physical universe is not merely ''described by'' mathematics, but ''is'' mathematics (specifically, a [[w:mathematical structure | mathematical structure]]). Mathematical existence equals physical existence, and all structures that exist mathematically exist physically as well. Any "self-aware substructures will subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world".<ref>Tegmark (1998), p. 1.</ref> The principle constraints to any mathematical universe simulation hypothesis are; 1. the computational resources required. The ancestor simulation can resolve this by adapting from the [[w:virtual rality |virtual reality]] approach where only the observable region is simulated and only to the degree required, and 2. that any 'self-aware structures' (humans for example) within the simulation must "subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world".<ref>Tegmark (1998), p. 1.</ref>. Succinctly, our computer games may be able to simulate our physical world, but they are still only simulations of a physical reality (regardless of how realistic they may seem) ... we are not yet able to program actual physical dimensions of mass, space and time from mathematical structures, and indeed this may not be possible with a computer hard-ware architecture that can only process binary data. === Deep-universe source code === As a deep-universe simulation is programmed by an external (external to the universe) intelligence (the Programmer God hypothesis), we cannot presume a priori knowledge regarding the simulation source code other than from this code the laws of nature emerged, and so any deep-universe simulation model we try to emulate must be universal, i.e.: independent of any system of units, of the [[w:Dimensional_analysis |dimensioned]] [[w:physical constants |physical constants]] (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'' .. ), and of any numbering systems. Furthermore, although a deep-universe simulation source code may use mathematical forms (circles, spheres ...) we are familiar with (for ultimately the source code is the origin of these forms), it will have been developed by a non-human intelligence and so we may have to develop new mathematical tools to decipher the underlying logic. By implication therefore, any theoretical basis for a source code that fits the above criteria (and from which the laws of nature will emerge), could be construed as our first tangible evidence of a non-human intelligence. === Constants === A physical universe is characterized by measurable quantities (size, mass, color, texture ...), and so a physical universe can be measured and defined. Contrast then becomes information, the statement ''this is a big apple'' requires a ''small apple'' against which big becomes a relative term. For analytical purposes we select a reference value, for example 0C or 32F, and measure all temperatures against this reference. The smaller the resolution of the measurements, the greater the information content (the file size of a 32 mega-pixel photo is larger than a 4 mega-pixel photo). A simulation universe may be presumed to also have a resolution dictating how much information the simulation can store and manipulate. To measure the fundamental parameters of our universe physics uses [[w:physical constant |physical constants]]. A physical constant is a [[w:physical quantity |physical quantity]] that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have a constant value in time. These can be divided into 1) dimension-ed (measured using physical units ''kg'', ''m'', ''s'', ''A'' ...) such as the [[w:speed of light |speed of light]] ''c'', [[w:gravitational constant |gravitational constant]] ''G'', [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]] ''h'' ... as in the table {| class="wikitable" |+ Physical constants ! constant ! symbol ! SI units |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Elementary charge |Elementary charge]] | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k''_B | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> |} Physicist [[w: |Lev Okun]] noted "Theoretical equations describing the physical world deal with dimensionless quantities and their solutions depend on dimensionless fundamental parameters. But experiments, from which these theories are extracted and by which they could be tested, involve measurements, i.e. comparisons with standard dimension-ful scales. Without standard dimension-ful units and hence without certain conventions physics is unthinkable <ref>Michael J. Duff et al, Journal of High Energy Physics, Volume 2002, JHEP03(2002)</ref>. 2) dimension-less, such as the [[w:Fine-structure_constant |fine structure constant]] ''α''. A dimension-less constant does not measure any physical quantity (it has no units; units = 1). 3) dimension-less [[w:mathematical constant |mathematical constants]], most notably [[w:pi |pi]] = 3.14159265358979 and [[w:Natural_logarithm |e]] = 2.718281828459. Although these are [[w:transcendental number |transcendental numbers]], they can be constructed by integers in a series, and so for a universe expanding incrementally (see simulation time), these constants could be formed within the simulation. For example, at time ''t''; <math display=block>t = 1; \frac{\pi^2}{6} = \frac{1}{t^2} </math> <math display=block>t = 2; \frac{\pi^2}{6} = \frac{1}{1^2} + \frac{1}{t^2}</math> <math display=block>t = now: \frac{\pi^2}{6} = \frac{1}{1^2} + \frac{1}{2^2} + \frac{1}{3^2} + \frac{1}{4^2} + \cdots + \frac{1}{t^2} </math> We may now define the fundamental physical constant as a parameter specifically chosen by the Programmer and is encoded into the simulation code directly, and so whilst it may be inferable, it is not derived from other constants ([[w:Fine-structure_constant#Numerological_explanations_and_multiverse_theory |Richard Feynman on the fine structure constant]]). It should also be dimension-less otherwise the simulation itself becomes dimensioned (if the simulation is running on a celestial computer it is merely data, it has no physical size or shape or ...), and so the dimensioned constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e''...) must all be derivable (derived from within the simulation) via the (embedded in the source code) fundamental physical constants (of which the fine structure constant alpha may be an example). Although [[w:pi |pi]] and [[w:Natural_logarithm |e]] are dimensionless, they can be derived internally (from integers), and as they have application in the mathematical realm, they can be referred to as mathematical constants. ==== Planck scale ==== The [[w:Planck scale |Planck scale]] refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the [[w:Standard Model |Standard Model]], [[w:quantum field theory |quantum field theory]] and [[w:general relativity |general relativity]] are no longer reconcilable, and [[w:Quantum Gravity |quantum effects of gravity]] are expected to dominate (quantum gravitational effects only appear at length scales near the Planck scale). Although particles may not be cognizance of our 'laws of physics', they do know the 'laws of nature'. These laws of nature would run directly off the universe OS (operating system), and so below this OS, 'physics' as we know it must necessarily break down. At present the Planck scale is the lowest known level, consequently any attempt to detect evidence of an underlying simulation coding must consider (if not actually begin at) this, the Planck scale<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AMQRXGYCDrY Planck scale, Brian Greene</ref>. The [[w:International_System_of_Units |SI units]] for the dimension-ful mksa units are; meter (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current). There are Planck units that represent these SI units, and so a simulation could use them as discrete building blocks; [[w:Planck length |Planck length]] (the smallest possible unit of length), [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] (the unit of mass), [[w:Planck time |Planck time]] (the smallest possible unit of time), [[w:Planck charge |Planck charge]] (the unit of charge). The speed of light then becomes ''c'' = 1 Planck length / 1 Planck time. These units would define the resolution and so information carrying capacity of the simulation universe. ==== Numbering systems ==== As well as our decimal system, computers apply binary and hexadecimal numbering systems. In particular the decimal and hexadecimal are of terrestrial origin and may not be considered 'universal'. Furthermore numbering systems measure only the frequency of an event and contain no information as to the event itself. The number 299 792 458 could refer to the speed of light (299 792 458 m/s) or could equally be referring to the number of apples in a container (299 792 458 apples). As such, numbers require a 'descriptive', whether m/s or apples. Numbers also do not include their history, is 299 792 458 for example a derivation of other base numbers? Present universe simulations use the laws of physics and the physical constants are built in, however both these laws and the physical constants are known only to a limited precision, and so a simulation with 10⁶² iterations (the present age of the universe in units of Planck time) will accumulate errors. Number based computing may be sufficient for ancestor-simulation models where only the observed region needs to be calculated, but has inherent limitations for deep universe simulations where the entire universe is continuously updated. The actual computational requirements for a Planck scale universe simulation based on a numbering system with the laws of physics embedded would be an unknown and consequently lead to an 'non-testable' hypothesis. This is a commonly applied reasoning for rejecting the deep universe simulation. ==== Geometrical objects ==== A mathematical constant such as [[w:pi |pi]] refers to a geometrical construct (the ratio of circle circumference to circle radius) and so is not constrained by any particular numbering system (in the decimal system π = 3.14159...), and so may be considered both universal and eternal. Likewise, by assigning geometrical objects instead of numbers to the Planck units, the problems with a numbering system can be resolved. These objects would however have to fulfill the following conditions; 1) embedded attribute - for example the object for length must embed the function of ''length'' such that a descriptive (km, mile ... ) is not required. Electron wavelength would then be measurable in terms of the length object, as such the length object must be embedded within the electron (the electron object). Although the mass object would incorporate the function ''mass'', the time object the function ''time'' ..., it is not necessary that there be an individual physical mass or physical length or physical time ..., but only that in relation to the other units, the object must express that function (i.e.: the mass object has the function of mass when in the presence of the objects for space and time). The electron could then be a complex event (complex geometrical object) constructed by combining the objects for mass, length, time and charge into 1 event, and thus electron charge, wavelength, frequency and mass would then be different aspects of that 1 geometry (the electron event) and not independent parameters (independent of each other). 2) The objects for mass, length, time and charge must be able to combine with each other [[w:Lego |Lego-style]] to form more complex objects (events) such as electrons and apples whilst still retaining the underlying information (the mass of the apple derives from the mass objects embedded within that apple). Not only must these objects be able to form complex events such as particles, but these events themselves are geometrical objects and so must likewise function according to their geometries. Electrons would orbit protons according to their respective electron and proton geometries, these orbits the result of geometrical imperatives and not due to any built-in laws of physics (the orbital path is a consequence of all the underlying geometries). However, as orbits follow regular and repeating patterns, they can be described (by us) using mathematical formulas. As the events grow in complexity (from atoms to molecules to planets), so too will the patterns (and likewise the formulas we use to describe them). Consequently the ''laws of physics'' would then become our mathematical descriptions of the underlying geometrically imposed patterns. 3) These objects would replace coded instructions (the instruction sets would be built into the objects) thereby instigating a geometrically autonomous universe. The electron 'knows' what to do by virtue of the information encoded within its geometry, no coded electron CALL FUNCTION is required. This would be equivalent to combining the hardware, software and CPU together such that the 'software' changes (adjusts) to the changing 'hardware' (DNA may be an analogy). Note: A purely mathematical universe has no limits in size and can be infinitely large and infinity small. A geometrical universe (that uses objects) has limitations, it can be no smaller than the smallest object for example and has discrete parts (those objects). The philosophy of the TOE (theory of everything) therefore includes a debate between the mathematical universe and the geometrical universe, however this distinction between mathematical and geometrical would only be apparent at the Planck scale. === Evidence of a simulation === The laws of physics are our incomplete observations of the natural universe, and so evidence of a simulation may be found in ambiguities or anomalies within these laws. Furthermore, if complexity arises over time, then at unit time the 'handiwork' of the Programmer may be notable by a simplicity and elegance of the geometries employed ... for the Programmer by definition has God-level programming skills. Here is a notable example. Mass, space and time from the number 1 The dimensions of mass, space and time are considered by science to be independent of each other, we cannot measure the ''distance'' from Tokyo to London using kilograms and amperes, or measure ''mass'' using space and time. Indeed, what characterizes a physical universe as opposed to a simulated universe is the notion that there is a fundamental structure underneath, that in some sense mass 'is', that time 'is' and space 'is' ... thus we cannot write ''kg'' in terms of ''m'' and ''s''. To do so would render our concepts of a physical universe meaningless. The 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) assigned exact numerical values to 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k''_B) independently of each other (and thereby confirming these as fundamental constants), and as they are measured in SI units ('''kg''', '''m''', '''s''', '''A''', '''K'''), these units must also be independent of each other (i.e.: these are fundamental units, for example if we could define ''m'' using ''A'' then the speed of light could be derived from, and so would depend upon, the value for the elementary charge ''e'', and so the value for ''c'' could not be assigned independently from ''e''). {| class="wikitable" |+ Physical constants ! constant ! symbol ! SI units |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Elementary charge |Elementary charge]] | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k''_B | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> |} We are familiar with inverse properties; plus charge and minus charge, matter and anti-matter ... and we can observe how these may form and/or cancel each other. A simulation universe however is required to be dimensionless (in sum total), for the simulated universe does not 'exist' in any physical sense outside of the 'Computer' (it is simply data on a celestial hard-disk). Our universe does not appear to have inverse properties such as anti-mass (-kg), anti-time (-s) or anti-space (anti-length -m), therefore the first problem the Programmer must solve is how to create the physical scaffolding (of mass, space and time). For example, the Programmer can start by selecting 2 dimensioned quantities, here are used ''r'', ''v'' <ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> such that :<math>kg = \frac{r^4}{v},\; m = \frac{r^9}{v^5},\; s = \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; A = \frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> Quantities ''r'' and ''v'' are chosen so that no unit (''kg'', ''m'', ''s'', ''A'') can cancel another unit (i.e.: the ''kg'' cannot cancel the ''m'' or the ''s'' ...), and so we have 4 independent units (we still cannot define the ''kg'' using the ''m'' or the ''s'' ...), however if 3 (or more) units are combined together in a specific ratio, they can cancel (in a certain ratio our ''r'' and ''v'' become inverse properties and so cancel each other; units = 1). <math>f_X = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = \frac{(\frac{r^4}{v})^9 (\frac{r^9}{v^6})^{11}}{(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^{15}} = 1</math> This f_X, although embedded within are the dimensioned structures for mass, time and length (in the above ratio), would be a dimensionless mathematical structure, units = 1. Thus we may create as much mass, time and length as we wish, the only proviso being that they are created in f_X ratios, so that regardless of how massive, old and large our universe becomes, it is still in sum total dimensionless. Defining the dimensioned quantities ''r'', ''v'' in SI unit terms. :<math>r = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})^{1/4}</math> :<math>v = \frac{m}{s}</math> Mass :<math>\frac{r^4}{v} = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})\;(\frac{s}{m}) = kg</math> Length :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^5})^4 = \frac{s^{20}}{m^{20}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{11}} = m^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = m^4 f_X = m^4</math> Time :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^6})^4 = \frac{s^{24}}{m^{24}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^6})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{15}}{m^{15}} = s^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = s^4 f_X = s^4</math> And so, although f_X is a dimensionless mathematical structure, we can embed within it the (mass, length, time ...) structures along with their dimensional attributes (kg, m, s, A ..). In the mathematical electron model <ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>, the electron itself is an example of an f_X structure, it (f_electron) is a dimensionless geometrical object that embeds the physical electron parameters of wavelength, frequency, charge (note: A-m = ampere-meter are the units for a [[w:Magnetic_monopole#In_SI_units |magnetic monopole]]). <math>f_{electron}</math> :<math>units = \frac{A^3 m^3}{s} = \frac{(\frac{v^3}{r^6})^3 (\frac{r^9}{v^5})^3}{(\frac{r^9}{v^6})} = 1</math> We may note that at the macro-level (of planets and stars) these f_X ratio are not found, and so this level is the domain of the observed physical universe, however at the quantum level, f_X ratio do appear, f_electron as an example, the mathematical and physical domains then blurring. This would also explain why physics can measure precisely the parameters of the electron (wavelength, mass ...), but has never found the electron itself. == Programming == “God vs. science debates tend to be restricted to the premise that a God does not rely on science and that science does not need a God. As science and God are thus seen as mutually exclusive there are few, if any, serious attempts to construct mathematical models of a universe whose principle axiom does require a God. However, if there is an Intelligence responsible for the 14 billion year old universe of modern physics, being the universe of Einstein and Dirac, and beginning with the big bang as the act of 'creation', then we must ask how it might be done? What construction technique could have been used to set the laws of physics in motion?” <ref>[https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects]</ref> === Simulation Time === The (dimensionless) simulation clock-rate would be defined as the minimum 'time variable' ('''age''') increment to the simulation. Using a simple loop as analogy (and based around this f_X postulate) at ''age'' = 1, the simulation begins (the big bang), certain processes occur, when these are completed ''age'' increments (''age'' = 2, then 3, then 4 ... ) until ''age'' reaches ''the_end'' and the simulation stops. 'begin simulation FOR age = 1 TO the_end 'big bang = 1 conduct certain processes ........ NEXT age 'end simulation [[w:Quantum spacetime |Quantum spacetime]] and [[w:Quantum gravity |Quantum gravity]] models refer to [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] as the smallest discrete unit of time and so the incrementing variable '''age''' could be used to generate units of Planck time (and other Planck units, the physical scaffolding of the universe). In a geometrical model, to these Planck units could be assigned geometrical objects, for example; Initialize_physical_constants; FOR age = 1 TO the_end generate 1 unit of (Planck) time; '1 time 'object' T generate 1 unit of (Planck) mass; '1 mass 'object' M generate 1 unit of (Planck) length; '1 length 'object' L ........ NEXT age The variable ''age'' is the simulation clock-rate, it is simply a counter (1, 2, 3 ...) and so is a dimensionless number, the object T is the geometrical Planck time object, it is dimensioned and is measured by us in seconds. If ''age'' is the origin of Planck time (1 increment to ''age'' generates 1 T object) then ''age'' = 10⁶², this is based on the present [[w:Age_of_the_universe |age of the universe]], which, at 14 billion years, equates to 10⁶² units of Planck time. For each ''age'', certain operations are performed, only after they are finished does ''age'' increment (there is no ''time'' interval between increments). As noted, ''age'' being dimensionless, is not the same as dimensioned Planck time which is the geometrical object T, and this T, being dimensioned, can only appear within the simulation. The analogy would be frames of a movie, each frame contains dimensioned information but there is no ''time'' interval between frames. FOR age = 1 TO the_end (of the movie) display frame{age} NEXT age Although operations (between increments to ''age'') may be extensive, self-aware structures from within the simulation would have no means to determine this, they could only perceive themselves as being in a real-time (for them the smallest unit of ''time'' is 1T, just as the smallest unit of ''time'' in a movie is 1 frame). Their (those self-aware structures) dimension of time would then be a measure of relative motion (a change of state), and so although ultimately deriving from the variable ''age'', their time would not be the same as ''age''. If there was no motion, if all particles and photons were still (no change of state), then their time dimension could not update (if every frame in a movie was the same then actors within that movie could not register a change in time), ''age'' however would continue to increment. Thus we have 3 time structures; 1) the dimension-less simulation clock-rate variable ''age'', 2) the dimensioned time unit (object T), and 3) time as change of state (the observers time). Observer time requires a memory of past events against which a change of state can be perceived. The forward increment to ''age'' would constitute the [[w:arrow of time |arrow of time]]. Reversing this would reverse the arrow of time, the universe would likewise shrink in size and mass accordingly (just as a [[w:white hole |white hole]] is the (time) reversal of a [[w:black hole |black hole]]). FOR age = the_end TO 1 STEP -1 delete 1 unit of Planck time; delete 1 unit of Planck mass; delete 1 unit of Planck length; ........ NEXT age Adding mass, length and time objects per increment to ''age'' would force the universe expansion (in size and mass), and as such an anti-gravitational [[w:dark energy |dark energy]] would not be required, however these objects are dimensioned and so are generated within the simulation. This means that they must somehow combine in a specific ratio whereby they (the units for mass length, time, charge; ''kg'', ''m'', ''s'', ''A'') in sum total cancel each other, leaving the sum universe (the simulation itself) residing on that celestial hard-disk. We may introduce a theoretical dimensionless (f_X) geometrical object denoted as f_Planck within which are embedded the dimensioned objects MLTA (mass, length, time, charge), and from which they may be extracted. FOR age = 1 TO the_end add 1 f_Planck 'dimensionless geometrical 'object' { extract 1 unit of (Planck) time; '1 time 'object' T extract 1 unit of (Planck) mass; '1 mass 'object' M extract 1 unit of (Planck) length; '1 length 'object' L } ........ NEXT age This then means that the simulation, in order to create time T, must also create mass M and space L (become larger and more massive). Thus no matter how small or large the physical universe is (when seen internally), in sum total (when seen externally), there is no universe - it is merely data without physical form. === Universe time-line === As the universe expands outwards (through the constant addition of units of mass and length via f_Planck), and if this expansion pulls particles with it (if it is the origin of motion), then ''now'' (the present) would reside on the surface of the (constantly expanding at the speed of light; ''c'' = 1 Planck length / 1 Planck time) universe, and so the 'past' could be retained, for the past cannot be over-written by the present in an expanding universe (if ''now'' is always on the surface). As this expansion occurs at the Planck scale, information even below quantum states, down to the Planck scale, can be retained, the analogy would be the storing of every [[w:Keystroke_logging |keystroke]], a Planck scale version of the [[w:Akashic records |Akashic records]] ... for if our deeds (the past) are both stored and cannot be over-written (by the present), then we have a candidate for the '[[w:karma |karmic]] heavens' (Matthew 6:19 ''But lay up for yourselves treasures in 'heaven', where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal''). This also forms a universe '''time-line''' against which previous information can be compared with new information (a 'memory' of events), without which we could not link cause with effect. === Singularity === In a simulation, the data (software) requires a storage device that is ultimately hardware (RAM, HD ...). In a data world of 1's and 0's such as a computer game, characters within that game may analyze other parts of their 1's and 0's game, but they have no means to analyze the hard disk upon which they (and their game) are stored, for the hard disk is an electro-mechanical device, it is not part of their 1's and 0's world, it is a part of the 'real world', the world of their Programmer. Furthermore the rules programmed into their game would constitute for them the laws of physics (the laws by which their game operates), but these may or may not resemble the laws that operate in the 'real world' (the world of their Programmer). Thus any region where the laws of physics (the laws of their game world) break down would be significant. A [[w:singularity |singularity]] inside a black hole is such a region <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W5j7umtZYB4 a black hole singularity as the interface between worlds</ref>. For the [[w:black hole electron |black-hole electron]], its black-hole center would then be analogous to a storage address on a hard disk, the interface between the simulation world and the real world. A massive (galactic) black-hole could be as an entire data sector. The surface of the black-hole would then be of the simulation world, the size of the black hole surface reflecting the stored information, the interior of the black-hole however would be the interface between the data world and the 'hard disk' of the real world, and so would not exist in any 'physical' terms. It is external to the simulation. As analogy, we may discuss the 3-D surface area of a black-hole but not its volume (interior). === Laws of Physics === The scientific method is built upon testable hypothesis and reproducible results. Water always boils (in defined conditions), at 100°C. In a geometrical universe particles will behave according to geometrical imperatives, the geometry of the electron and proton ensuring that electrons will orbit nuclei in repeating and predictable patterns. The laws of physics would then be a set of mathematical formulas that describe these repeating patterns, the more complex the orbits, the more complex the formulas required to describe them and so forth. However if there is a source code from which these geometrical conditions were programmed, then there may also be non-repeating events, back-doors built into the code (a common practice by terrestrial programmers), these by definition would lie outside the laws of physics and so be labelled as miracles, yet they would be no less valid. === Determinism === [[File:Three body problem figure-8 orbit animation.gif|400px|thumb|An animation of the figure-8 solution to the three-body problem over a single period T ≃ 6.3259.<ref>Here the gravitational constant ''G'' has been set to 1, and the initial conditions are '''r'''₁(0) = −'''r'''₃(0) = (−0.97000436, 0.24308753); '''r'''₂(0) = (0,0); '''v'''₁(0) = '''v'''₃(0) = (0.4662036850, 0.4323657300); '''v'''₂(0) = (−0.93240737, −0.86473146). The values are obtained from Chenciner & Montgomery (2000).</ref>]] Particles form more complex structures such as atoms and molecules via a system of orbitals; nuclear, atomic and gravitational. The [[w:Three-body_problem |3-body problem]] is the problem of taking the initial positions and velocities (or [[w:momentum|momenta |momentum|momenta]]) of three or more point masses and solving for their subsequent motion according to [[w:Newton's laws of motion |Newton's laws of motion]] and [[w:Newton's law of universal gravitation |Newton's law of universal gravitation]].<ref name="PrincetonCompanion">{{Citation | last = Barrow-Green | first = June | year = 2008 | title = The Three-Body Problem | editor-last1 = Gowers | editor-first1 = Timothy | editor-last2 = Barrow-Green | editor-first2 = June | editor-last3 = Leader | editor-first3 = Imre | encyclopedia = The Princeton Companion to Mathematics | pages = 726–728 | publisher = Princeton University Press }}</ref>. Simply put, this means that although a simulation using gravitational orbitals of similar mass may have a pre-determined outcome, it seems that for gods and men alike the only way to know what that outcome will be is to run the simulation itself. ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass ===General articles=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ===3+1 oscillation levels=== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) === External links === * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) * [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/ The Matrix, (1999)] * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras "all is number"] - Stanford University * [[w:Simulation Hypothesis | Simulation Hypothesis]] * [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]] * [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]] * [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Philosophy| ]] [[Category:Philosophy of science| ]] __INDEX__ mnd09znq9no6mg1af45dk9j92cdxbzn 0 203942 2816668 2816237 2026-06-24T12:43:40Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2816668 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260622.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] 4h38lsfm9tifaeknr21r7b7s63dr2na 2816670 2816668 2026-06-24T12:44:39Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2816670 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260623.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] o0bgmgz09itsoklu27hj9grfy26t1ew 2 204202 2816792 2785879 2026-06-25T04:23:20Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''A Planck-unit universe scaffolding''' In the [[w:Planck units |Planck unit]] theory discussed here, the Planck units form a scaffolding for the particle (baryonic matter) universe. The parameters for this Planck unit scaffolding are compared with equivalent Cosmic Microwave Background parameters, showing a divergence in key parameters of about 6%, which correlates to the estimated ratio of baryonic matter to total (about 5%). The model postulates a Planck unit scaffolding upon which the particle universe resides and supposes that within the CMB parameters can be found evidence of this non-baryonic background. The model uses only Planck mass and Planck length as the primary structures and a spiral geometry as the `rule set' <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title= 1. Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3333513}}</ref>. The peak frequency of the CMB is used to establish an age of the universe in Planck time units, this is the sole variable, nevertheless from this we can derive estimates for the radiation energy density, the CMB temperature and a cold dark matter mass density that are shown to be consistent with current observational values. Interestingly this suggests that dark matter may be predominantly non-baryonic. The Casimir force equation reduces to the equation for radiation density implying that the universe has finite boundaries, albeit these are expanding at a constant rate. This article is part of a Planck scale Simulation Hypothesis project that attempts to demonstrate that the universe could in sum total be dimensionless, relying on geometrical artifice to create actual physical structures <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/Programmer-God_Simulation-Hypothesis_Complete-Model-2025.pdf for AI analysis, the model has been compiled into a single pdf</ref>. === Universe clock-rate === The (dimensionless) universe clock-rate would be defined as the minimum discrete 'time variable' ('''t<sub>age</sub>''') increment to the universe. As an analogy to the programmed loop; 'begin FOR t<sub>age</sub> = 1 TO the_end //big bang = 1 conduct certain processes ........ NEXT t<sub>age</sub> //t<sub>age</sub> is an incrementing variable and not the dimensioned unit of time 'end For each increment to t<sub>age</sub>, a set of Planck units are added. FOR t<sub>age</sub> = 1 TO the_end generate Planck time T = t<sub>p</sub> generate Planck mass M = m<sub>P</sub> generate Planck volume (radius L = Planck length l<sub>p</sub>) ........ NEXT t<sub>age</sub> As each '''t<sub>age</sub>''' increment adds 1 unit of Planck time '''t<sub>p</sub>''', then in a 14 billion year old universe (note t<sub>p</sub> has the units ''s'', t<sub>age</sub> is dimensionless) :numerically '''t<sub>age</sub> = t<sub>p</sub> = 10<sup>62</sup>''' Comparison between the calculated Planck unit framework and the ΛCDM parameters (table 1.). {| class="wikitable" |+table 1. cosmic microwave background parameters; Planck vs ΛCDM ! Parameter ! Calculated ! Observed ! Deviation |- | Age (billions of years) | 14.624 | 13.8 | 6% |- | Dark matter density | 0.21 x 10<sup>-26</sup> kg.m-3 | 0.226 x 10<sup>-26</sup> kg.m-3 | 6.7% |- | Radiation energy density | 0.417 x 10<sup>-13</sup> kg.m-1.s-2 | 0.417 x 10<sup>-13</sup> kg.m-1.s-2 | |- | Hubble constant | 66.86 km/s/Mp | 67.74 km/s/Mp | 1.3% |- | CMB temperature | 2.7272K | 2.7255K | |- | Casimir length | 0.41mm | | |} === Mass density === Setting ''bh'' as the sum universe and t<sub>sec</sub> as time measured in seconds; :<math>mass:\; m_{bh} = 2 t_{age} m_P</math> :<math>volume:\; v_{bh} = \frac{4 \pi r^3}{3} \;\;\; (r=4 l_p t_{age} = 2 c t_{sec})</math> :<math>\frac{m_{bh}}{v_{bh}} = {2 t_{age} m_P}.\;\frac{3}{4 \pi {(4 l_p t_{age})}^3} = \frac{3 m_P}{128 \pi t_{age}^2 l_p^3} \; (\frac{kg}{m^3})</math> Gravitation constant ''G'' in Planck units; :<math>G = \frac{c^2 l_p}{m_P}</math> :<math>\frac{m_{bh}}{v_{bh}} = \frac{3}{32 \pi t_{sec}^2 G} </math> From the [[w:Friedmann_equations |Friedman equation]]; replacing ''p'' with the above mass density formula, ''√(λ)'' reduces to the radius of the universe; :<math>\lambda = \frac{3 c^2}{8 \pi G p} = 4 c^2 t_{sec}^2 </math> :<math>\sqrt{\lambda} = radius \; r = 2 c t_{sec} \;(m) </math> === Temperature === Measured in terms of Planck temperature T<sub>P</sub>; :<math>T_{bh} = \frac{T_P}{8 \pi \sqrt{t_{age}}}\; (K) </math> The ''mass/volume'' formula uses ''t<sub>age</sub><sup>2</sup>'', the ''temperature'' formula uses ''√(t<sub>age</sub>)''. We may therefore eliminate the age variable ''t<sub>age</sub>'' and combine both formulas into a single constant of proportionality that resembles the [[w:Stefan–Boltzmann_constant |radiation density constant]]. :<math>T_p = \frac{m_P c^2}{k_B} = \sqrt{\frac{h c^5}{2\pi G {k_B}^2}}</math> :<math>\frac{m_{bh}}{v_{bh} T_{bh}^4} = \frac{2^5 3 \pi^3 m_P}{l_p^3 T_P^4} = \frac{2^8 3 \pi^6 k_B^4}{h^3 c^5} </math> === Radiation energy density === From Stefan Boltzmann constant ''σ<sub>SB</sub>'' :<math>\sigma_{SB} = \frac{2 \pi^5 k_B^4}{15 h^3 c^2} </math> :<math>\frac{4\sigma_{SB}}{c}.T_{bh}^4 = \frac{c^2}{1440 \pi}. \frac{ m_{bh}}{v_{bh}}</math> === Casimir formula === [[File:simulation_hypothesis_Casimir.png|thumb|right|345px|y-axis = mPa, x-axis = d<sub>c</sub>2l<sub>p</sub> (nm)}]] The Casimir force per unit area for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them; F = force, A = plate area, ''d<sub>c</sub> 2 l<sub>p</sub>'' = distance between plates in units of Planck length :<math>{-F_c}{A} = \frac{\pi h c}{480 {(d_c 2 l_p)}^4}</math> if ''d<sub>c</sub> = 2 π √t<sub>age</sub>'' then the Casimir force equates to the radiation energy density formula. :<math>\frac{-F_c}{A} = \frac{c^2}{1440 \pi}. \frac{m_{bh}}{v_{bh}} </math> The diagram (right) plots Casimir length d<sub>c</sub>2l<sub>p</sub> against radiation energy density pressure measured in mPa for different t<sub>age</sub> with a vertex around 1Pa. A radiation energy density pressure of 1Pa occurs around t<sub>age</sub> = 0.8743 10<sup>54</sup> t<sub>p</sub> (2987 years), with Casimir length = 189.89nm and temperature T<sub>BH</sub> = 6034 K. === Hubble constant === 1 Mpc = 3.08567758 x 10<sup>22</sup>. :<math>H = \frac{1 Mpc}{t_{sec}} </math> === Black body peak frequency === :<math>\frac{x e^x}{e^x-1} - 3 = 0, x = 2.821439372... </math> :<math>f_{peak} = \frac{k_B T_{bh} x}{h} = \frac{x}{8 \pi^2 \sqrt{t_{age}} t_p}</math> === Cosmological constant === Riess and Perlmutter using Type 1a supernovae to show that the universe is accelerating. This discovery provided the first direct evidence that ''Ω'' is non-zero giving the cosmological constant as ~ 10<sup>71</sup> years; :<math>t_{end} \sim 1.7 x 10^{-121} \sim 0.588 x 10^{121}</math> units of Planck time; This remarkable discovery has highlighted the question of why ''Ω'' has this unusually small value. So far, no explanations have been offered for the proximity of ''Ω'' to ''1/t<sub>univ</sub><sup>2</sup> ~ 1.6 x 10<sup>-122</sup>'', where ''t<sub>univ</sub> ~ 8 x 10<sup>60</sup>'' is the present expansion age of the universe in Planck time units. Attempts to explain why ''Ω ~ 1/t<sub>univ</sub><sup>2</sup>'' have relied upon ensembles of possible universes, in which all possible values of ''Ω'' are found <ref>J. Barrow, D. J. Shaw; The Value of the Cosmological Constant, arXiv:1105.3105v1 [gr-qc] 16 May 2011</ref> . The maximum temperature ''T<sub>max</sub>'' would be when ''t<sub>age</sub>'' = 1. What is of equal importance is the minimum possible temperature ''T<sub>min</sub>'' - that temperature 1 Planck unit above absolute zero, this temperature would signify the limit of expansion; ''t<sub>age</sub> = the_end'' (the 'universe' could expand no further). For example, taking the inverse of Planck temperature; :<math>T_{min} \sim \frac{1}{T_{max}} \sim \frac{8 \pi}{T_P} \sim 0.177\;10^{-30}\; K </math> This then gives us a value for the final age in units of Planck time (about 0.35 x 10<sup>73</sup> yrs); :<math>t_{end} = T_{max}^4 \sim 1.014 \;10^{123} </math> The mid way point (T<sub>universe</sub> = 1K) would be when (about 108.77 billion years); :<math>t_u = T_{max}^2 \sim 3.18 \;10^{61} </math> === Spiral expansion === [[File:Planck pixel.jpg|thumb|right|345px|Planck black-hole universe; Planck units mapped onto a Theodorus spiral giving universe mass, size, temperature per value of ''t''<sub>age</sub>]] In this geometrical approach, the only free parameter used in the above calculations is the universe clock-rate. This clock-rate may also have geometrical origins rather than an externally imposed 'loop'. By expanding according to the geometry of the [[w:Spiral of Theodorus |Spiral of Theodorus]], where each triangle refers to 1 increment to t<sub>age</sub>, we can map the mass and volume components as integral steps of ''t<sub>age</sub>'' (the spiral circumference) and the radiation domain as a sqrt progression (the spiral arm). A spiral universe can rotate with respect to itself differentiating between an L and R universe without recourse to an external reference. If [[w:mathematical constant |mathematical constants]] are also a function of ''t<sub>age</sub>'', then their precision would depend on ''t<sub>age</sub>'', for example we can construct pi using this progression; :<math> \frac{\pi^2}{6} = \frac{1}{1^2} + \frac{1}{2^2} + \frac{1}{3^2} + \frac{1}{4^2} + \cdots</math> Mathematical constants may thus be naturally occurring, their accuracy improving as the universe ages. ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ===3+1 oscillation levels=== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) == External links == * [[w:Simulation_hypothesis | The Simulation hypothesis]] * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Physics]] [[Category:Philosophy of science| ]] __INDEX__ fcf4m6fbc4y2nl0tan9gupbgbgxu7ai 0 235875 2816715 2581835 2026-06-24T14:58:51Z Lbocquet 3096797 2816715 wikitext text/x-wiki == Installing nginx web server == [[w:Nginx]] [[web server]] that was written in 2004 with an explicit goal of outperforming the traditional and widely used Apache web server. Official documentation is on https://nginx.org/en/docs/. :Configuration File: <code>/etc/nginx/nginx.conf</code> :Additional Configuration file: <code>/etc/nginx/conf.d/default.conf</code> :Error log file: <code>/var/log/nginx/error.log</code> === nginx vs Apache === Apache was first released in 1995 while nginx was first released 9 years later in 2004, so traditionally there has been a more broad knowledge of Apache web server than nginx. We will present main differences from Apache to nginx for newcomers. Both servers support virtual host configuration and include directives. ==== Configuration differences ==== * No concept equivalent to <code>.htaccess</code> files * Configuration file based on directives: <code>nginx.conf</code><ref>https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/understanding-the-nginx-configuration-file-structure-and-configuration-contexts</ref> vs <code>httpd.conf</code>, arguably nginx configuration language is easier to read. === Installing and Operating nginx web server on CentOS Linux === Installation packages for different Linux platforms is are available on nginx linux package webpage<ref>http://nginx.org/en/linux_packages.html</ref>. Follow this three easy steps on CentOS Linux: # Update your package repository using http://nginx.org/en/linux_packages.html information # run ''yum update'' # ''sudo [[yum]] install -y nginx'' ==== Running nginx web server ==== # Starting nginx: <code>sudo [[systemctl]] start nginx</code> #<code>sudo systemctl enable nginx</code> ==== Check nginx running ==== *Check default webpage/virtualhost: <code>[[curl]] http:://localhost</code> ::In case of error check error log file:<code>/var/log/nginx/error.log</code> *Check connection to example.com virtualhost: <code>curl --header "Host: example.com" localhost</code> ==== Configuring nginx ==== Configuration of nginx on CentOS is done in ''/etc/nginx/nginx.conf'' (upstream github file<ref>https://github.com/nginx/nginx/blob/master/conf/nginx.conf</ref>) == Basic nginx Operation == * Check status: <code>[[systemctl]] reload nginx</code> (not output expected if everything runs properly) * Starting Nginx: <code>systemctl start nginx</code> or <code>nginx -s [stop|quit|reload|reopen]</code><ref>https://nginx.org/en/docs/beginners_guide.html#control</ref> * Stopping Nginx: <code>systemctl stop nginx</code> * Reload configuration after every configuration change: <code>systemctl reload nginx</code>, Nginx has to be reload every time we want any configuration change take effect. * Check Configuration: <code>nginx -t</code> == nginx Configuration == === Basic nginx Configuration === Example of the '''simplest''' possible server configuration file, listening on 80 port (default http port) <pre>/etc/nginx/conf.d/default.conf server { listen 80; root /usr/share/nginx/html; } </pre> Example of the '''virtual host''' for www.example.com or example.com domain <pre>/etc/nginx/conf.d/default.conf server { listen 80; server_name example.com www.example.com root /var/www/example.com/html; } </pre> == Checking nginx errors == Errors are write to error log file <code>/var/log/nginx/error.log</code>, you can use grep to search for errors. For example: <pre>grep error /var/log/nginx/error.log 2011/03/08 11:12:21 [error] 1755#1754 *8 "/var/www/example.com/html/index.html" is forbidden (13: Permission denied), client: 1.123.51.252, server: http://Example/URL.com, request: "GET / HTTP/1.1", host: "http://Example/URL.com"</pre> or <pre>grep emerg /var/log/nginx/error.log</pre> Permission denied errors can be cause by [[Operating Systems/Unix/Security|Selinux]] security module misconfiguration<ref>https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-us/red_hat_enterprise_linux/7/html/selinux_users_and_administrators_guide/sect-security-enhanced_linux-working_with_selinux-selinux_contexts_labeling_files</ref>, adding ''httpd_sys_content_t'' context can solve permission denied errors. <pre>semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/var/www(/.*)?" semanage fcontext -l | grep /var/www restorecon -R -v /var/www </pre> == Next Steps == Now you can check official documentation and learn how to * Modify default error pages using error_page directive * Use Access Control with [[w:Basic access authentication|HTTP Basic Auth]] using <code>location</code><ref>https://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_core_module.html#location</ref> directive , <code>http_auth_basic</code> module<ref>https://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_auth_basic_module.html</ref>, <code>htpasswd</code> utility and <code>.htpasswd</code> files * Use [[w:Digest access authentication]] * Configure [[w:https]] using self-signed certificates using [[openssl]] (for example:<code>openssl req -x590 -nodes -days 365 -newkey rsa:2048 -keyout /etc/nginx/ssl/private.key -out /etc/nginx/ssl/public.pem</code>) * [[Monitoring Nginx web server]] == Additional nginx documentation == * nginx directives: http://nginx.org/en/docs/dirindex.html. Common nginx directives are: <code>server<ref>http://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_core_module.html#server</ref>, server_name, listen<ref>http://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_core_module.html#listen</ref>, root<ref>http://nginx.org/en/docs/http/ngx_http_core_module.html#root</ref></code> == Activities == === Basic === # [[/Read Nginx release Notes/]] / Changelog # Install nginx using [[docker]] === Advanced === # Configure nginx as [[reverse proxy]] with [[Websocket]] support == See also == * [[wikipedia:nginx]] * [[w:URL_redirection#nginx_rewrite]] * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Free_web_server_software == References == {{reflist}} {{subpage navbar}} [[Category:Server administration]] [[Category:Web server software]] 0pypea5jv5nm2y7ma37028mj26g21h6 2 246801 2816787 2790889 2026-06-25T03:55:22Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''The mathematical electron model''' In the mathematical electron model <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>, the electron is a geometrical object denoted by the formula (ψ), itself the geometry of 3 numbers; the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), a mathematical constant Omega, and pi (Omega itself is a construct of pi and e). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453... \times 10^{23},\;unit = 1</math> (unit-less) :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.0071349543... </math> Although dimensionless, this formula ψ encodes the information required to make the physical electron parameters (wavelength, frequency, mass, charge). It does this by embedding within its own geometry objects for [[w:Planck_units |Planck units]] analogues; M for mass <math>m_P</math>, L for length <math>l_p</math>, T for time <math>t_p</math> and A for charge <math>A</math>, and then dictates the frequency of these geometrical (Planck) objects. [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] :<math>\lambda_e = 2\pi l_p \psi</math> [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] :<math>m_e = \frac{m_P}{\psi}</math> === Geometrical objects MLTA === The base MLTA units {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)}} {| class="wikitable" |+table 1. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | (kg) |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | (s) |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | (m/s) |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | (m) |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})</math> | (A) |} Geometrical objects (when compared to a numbering system) have the advantage in that the function (attribute) can be embedded within the geometry (even although the geometry itself is dimensionless); for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function 'time', the geometry of the length object L embeds the function 'length' ... and being geometrical objects they can combine to form more complex objects, from electrons to apples ... and so the apple has mass because embedded within it are the mass objects M, complex objects thus retain all the underlying information. This however requires a relationship between the Planck unit geometries that defines how they may combine, this can be represented by assigning to each attribute a unit number '''θ''' (i.e.: '''θ''' = 15 ⇔ ''kg''). {| class="wikitable" |+ Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! unit number (θ) |- | mass | <math>M = 1</math> | ''kg'' ⇔ 15 |- | time | <math>T = 2\pi</math> | ''s'' ⇔ -30 |- | length | <math>L = 2\pi^2\Omega^2</math> | ''m'' ⇔ -13 |- | velocity | <math>V = 2\pi\Omega^2</math> | ''m/s'' ⇔ 17 |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^6 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}}</math> | ''A'' ⇔ 3 |} As alpha and Omega can be assigned numerical values ('''α''' = 137.035999139, '''Ω''' = 2.0071349496), so too the MLTA objects can be expressed numerically. We can then convert these objects to their Planck unit equivalents by including a dimensioned scalar. For example, <math>V = 2\pi\Omega^2</math> = 25.3123819353... and so we can use scalar ''v'' to convert from dimensionless geometrical object V to dimensioned ''c''. :scalar ''v''<sub>SI</sub> = 11843707.905 m/s gives ''c'' = V*v<sub>SI</sub> = 25.3123819 * 11843707.905 m/s = 299792458 m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :scalar ''v''<sub>imp</sub> = 7359.3232155 miles/s gives ''c'' = V*v<sub>imp</sub> = 186282 miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) {| class="wikitable" |+Scalars ! attribute ! geometrical object ! scalar (unit number) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' (θ = 15) |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' (θ = -30) |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' (θ = 17) |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' (θ = -13) |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})</math> | ''a'' (θ = 3) |} As the scalar incorporates the dimension quantity (the dimension quantity for ''v'' = ''m/s'' or ''miles/s''), the unit number relationship (θ) applies, and so we then find that only 2 scalars are needed. This is because in a defined ratio they will overlap and cancel, for example in the following ratios; scalar units for ampere ''a'' = ''u''<sup>3</sup>, length ''l'' = ''u''<sup>-13</sup>, time ''t'' = ''u''<sup>-30</sup>, mass ''k'' = ''u''<sup>15</sup> (''u''<sup>Θ</sup> represents unit) :<math>\frac{({u^3})^3{(u^{-13}})^3}{(u^{-30})} = \frac{{(u^{-13})}^{15}} {{(u^{15})}^{9}{(u^{-30})}^{11}} = 1</math> For example if we know the numerical values for ''a'' and ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'', and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know ''k'' … and so if we know any 2 scalars (α and Ω have fixed values) then we can solve the Planck units (for that system of units), and from these, we can solve (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub>). :<math>\frac{a^3 l^3}{t} = \frac{m^{15}} {k^{9} t^{11}} = 1</math> and so <math>{a^3 l^3} = t</math> and <math>{m^{15}} = {k^{9} t^{11}}</math> In this table the 2 scalars used are ''r'' (θ = 8) which is related to momentum, and ''v'' (θ = 17). A further attribute is included, P = the square root of (Planck) momentum. This gives us 3 primary (Planck) units MTP; L, V and A can thus be considered composite objects <ref>Scalar theory in geometrical objects https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Scalars</ref>. {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | 16 = 8*2 | ''r''<sup>2</sup> |- | velocity | <math>V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | ''v'' |- | length | <math>L = V T = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha_{inv} P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>a = \frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} === Mathematical electron === The mathematical electron formula ψ incorporates the dimensioned Planck units but itself is dimension-less (units = scalars = 1). Here ψ is defined in terms of ''σ<sub>e</sub>'', where AL is an ampere-meter (ampere-length = ''e*c'' are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]). :<math>T = \pi,\; unit = u^{-30},\;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; unit = u^{(3 \;-13 \;= \;-10)},\; scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23},\;unit = 1</math> (unit-less) Both units and scalars cancel. ===== Electron parameters ===== We can solve the electron parameters; electron mass, wavelength, frequency, charge ... as the frequency of the Planck units themselves, and this frequency is ψ. :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] λ<sub>e</sub> = 2.4263102367e-12m (CODATA 2014) :<math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> = 2.4263102386e-12m (L ⇔ [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]) [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] m<sub>e</sub> = 9.10938356e-31kg (CODATA 2014) :<math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> = 9.1093823211e-31kg (M ⇔ [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] e = 1.6021766208e-19C (CODATA 2014) :<math>e^* = A\;T</math> = 1.6021765130e-19 (T ⇔ [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] R = 10973731.568508/m (CODATA 2014) :<math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha_{inv}^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha_{inv}^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> = 10973731.568508 From the above formulas, we see that wavelength is ψ units of Planck length, frequency is ψ units of Planck time ... however the electron mass is only 1 unit of Planck mass. ===== Electron Mass ===== Particle mass is a unit of Planck mass that occurs only once per ψ units of Planck time, the other parameters are continuums of the Planck units. :units <math>\psi = \frac{(AL)^3}{T}</math> = 1 This may be interpreted as; for ψ units of Planck time the electron has wavelength L, charge A ... and then the AL combine with time T (A<sup>3</sup>L<sup>3</sup>/T) and the units (and scalars) cancel. The electron is now mass (for 1 unit of Planck time). In this consideration, the electron is an event that oscillates over time between an electric wave state (duration ψ units of Planck time) to a unit of Planck mass point state (1 unit of Planck time). The electron is a quantum scale event, it does not exist at the discrete Planck scale (and so therefore neither does the quantum scale). As electron mass is the frequency of the geometrical Planck mass M = 1, which is a point (and so with point co-ordinates), then we have a model for a [[w:black hole electron |black-hole electron]], the electron function ψ centered around this unit of Planck mass. When the wave-state (A*L)<sup>3</sup>/T units collapse, this black-hole center (point) is exposed for 1 unit of (Planck) time. The electron is 'now' (a unit of Planck) mass. Mass in this consideration is not a constant property of the particle, rather the measured particle mass ''m'' would refer to the average mass, the average occurrence of the discrete Planck mass point-state over time. The formula ''E = hf'' is a measure of the frequency ''f'' of occurrence of [[w:Planck constant |Planck's constant ''h'']] and applies to the electric wave-state. As for each wave-state there is a corresponding mass point-state, then for a particle ''hf == mc2''. Notably however the ''c'' term is a fixed constant unlike the ''f'' term, and so the ''m'' term is the frequency term, it is referring to an average mass (mass which is measured over time) rather than a constant mass (mass as a constant property of the particle at unit Planck time). Thus as noted, when we refer to mass as a constant property, we are referring to average mass at the quantum scale, and the electron as a quantum-state particle. If the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding |scaffolding of the universe]] includes units of Planck mass '''M''', then it is not necessary for a particle itself to have mass, what we define as electron mass could be the absence of electron <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title= 1. Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3333513}}</ref>. ===== Quarks and Spin===== The charge on the electron derives from the embedded ampere A and length L, the electron formula ψ itself is dimensionless. These AL magnetic monopoles would seem to be analogous to quarks (there are 3 monopoles per electron), but due to the symmetry and so stability of the geometrical ψ there is no clear fracture point by which an electron could decay, and so this would be difficult to test. We can however conjecture on what a quark solution might look like, the advantage with this approach being that we do not need to introduce new 'entities' for our quarks, the Planck units embedded within the electron suffice <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 7. Geometric Origin of Quarks and Spin, the Mathematical Electron extended |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.21695.16808/1 }}</ref>. ====== Quarks====== Electron formula :<math>\psi = 2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = 1, scalars = 1</math> Time :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> AL magnetic monopole :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; u^{-10}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> If <math>\sigma_{e}</math> could equate to a quark with an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of {{sfrac|-1|3}}[[w:elementary charge|''e'']], then it would be an analogue of the '''D''' quark. 3 of these D quarks would constitute the electron as DDD = (AL)*(AL)*(AL). We would assume that the charge on the [[w:positron |positron]] (anti-matter electron) is just the inverse of the above, however there is 1 problem, the AL (A; θ=3, L; θ=-13) units = -10, and if we look at the [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Table_of_Constants |table of constants]], there is no 'units = +10' combination that can include A. We cannot make an inverse electron. However we can make a [[w:Planck temperature|Planck temperature T<sub>p</sub>]] AV ''monopole'' (ampere-velocity). :<math>T_p = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha_{inv}},\; u^{20}, \;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>\sigma_{t} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 T_p}{2\pi} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A V}{2\pi^2} = ({2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5}),\; u^{20},\;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}</math> :<math>\psi = (2T) \sigma_{t}^2 \sigma_{e} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = (u^{-30}) (u^{20})^2 (u^{-10}) = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) (\frac{v^4}{r^6})^2 \frac{r^3}{v^2} = 1</math> The units for <math>\sigma_{t}</math> = +20, and so if units = -10 equates to {{sfrac|-1|3}}e, then we may conjecture that units = +20 equates to {{sfrac|2|3}}e, which would be the analogue of the '''U''' quark. Our plus charge now becomes DUU, and so although the positron has the same wavelength, frequency, mass and charge magnitude as the electron (both solve to ψ), internally its charge structure resembles that of the proton, the positron is not simply an inverse of the electron. This could have implications for the missing anti-matter, and for why the charge magnitude of the proton is ''exactly'' the charge magnitude of the electron. :<math>D = \sigma_{e},\; unit = u^{-10},\; charge = \frac{-1e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>U = \sigma_{t},\; unit = u^{20},\; charge = \frac{2e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}</math> Numerically: Adding a proton and electron gives (proton) UUD & DDD (electron) = 2(UDD) = 20 -10 -10 = 0 (zero charge), scalars = 0. Converting between U and D via U & DDD (electron) = 20 -10 -10 -10 = -10 (D), scalars = <math>\frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> ====== Spin ====== [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity |Relativity at the Planck scale]] can be described by a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems; an expanding (in Planck steps at the speed of light) 4-axis hyper-sphere projecting onto a 3-D space <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282 }}</ref>. In this scenario, particles (with mass) are pulled along by the expansion of the hyper-sphere, this then requires particles to have an axis; generically labeled N-S, with the N denoting the direction of particle travel within the hyper-sphere. Changing the direction of travel involves changing the orientation of the particle N-S axis. We can link that external N--S axis to the internal monopole (DDD) geometry, and from this show how the three internal phases produce the spin-½ transformation law under spatial rotations about the N-S direction. ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===Article series=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ====General articles==== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ====3+1 oscillation levels==== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) == External links == * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) * [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/ The Matrix, (1999)] * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras "all is number"] - Stanford University * [[w:Simulation Hypothesis | Simulation Hypothesis]] * [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]] * [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]] * [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ tmubcm8j2d7l0ws4ey49fm2d1wb2alt 2816794 2816787 2026-06-25T04:32:24Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''The mathematical electron model''' In the mathematical electron model <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>, the electron is a geometrical object denoted by the formula (ψ), itself the geometry of 3 numbers; the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), a mathematical constant Omega, and pi (Omega itself is a construct of pi and e). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453... \times 10^{23},\;unit = 1</math> (unit-less) :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.0071349543... </math> Although dimensionless, this formula ψ encodes the information required to make the physical electron parameters (wavelength, frequency, mass, charge). It does this by embedding within its own geometry objects for [[w:Planck_units |Planck units]] analogues; M for mass <math>m_P</math>, L for length <math>l_p</math>, T for time <math>t_p</math> and A for charge <math>A</math>, and then dictates the frequency of these geometrical (Planck) objects. [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] :<math>\lambda_e = 2\pi l_p \psi</math> [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] :<math>m_e = \frac{m_P}{\psi}</math> === Geometrical objects MLTA === The base MLTA units {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)}} {| class="wikitable" |+table 1. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | (kg) |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | (s) |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | (m/s) |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | (m) |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})</math> | (A) |} Geometrical objects (when compared to a numbering system) have the advantage in that the function (attribute) can be embedded within the geometry (even although the geometry itself is dimensionless); for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function 'time', the geometry of the length object L embeds the function 'length' ... and being geometrical objects they can combine to form more complex objects, from electrons to apples ... and so the apple has mass because embedded within it are the mass objects M, complex objects thus retain all the underlying information. This however requires a relationship between the Planck unit geometries that defines how they may combine, this can be represented by assigning to each attribute a unit number '''θ''' (i.e.: '''θ''' = 15 ⇔ ''kg''). {| class="wikitable" |+ Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! unit number (θ) |- | mass | <math>M = 1</math> | ''kg'' ⇔ 15 |- | time | <math>T = 2\pi</math> | ''s'' ⇔ -30 |- | length | <math>L = 2\pi^2\Omega^2</math> | ''m'' ⇔ -13 |- | velocity | <math>V = 2\pi\Omega^2</math> | ''m/s'' ⇔ 17 |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^6 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}}</math> | ''A'' ⇔ 3 |} As alpha and Omega can be assigned numerical values ('''α''' = 137.035999139, '''Ω''' = 2.0071349496), so too the MLTA objects can be expressed numerically. We can then convert these objects to their Planck unit equivalents by including a dimensioned scalar. For example, <math>V = 2\pi\Omega^2</math> = 25.3123819353... and so we can use scalar ''v'' to convert from dimensionless geometrical object V to dimensioned ''c''. :scalar ''v''<sub>SI</sub> = 11843707.905 m/s gives ''c'' = V*v<sub>SI</sub> = 25.3123819 * 11843707.905 m/s = 299792458 m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :scalar ''v''<sub>imp</sub> = 7359.3232155 miles/s gives ''c'' = V*v<sub>imp</sub> = 186282 miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) {| class="wikitable" |+Scalars ! attribute ! geometrical object ! scalar (unit number) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' (θ = 15) |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' (θ = -30) |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' (θ = 17) |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' (θ = -13) |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})</math> | ''a'' (θ = 3) |} As the scalar incorporates the dimension quantity (the dimension quantity for ''v'' = ''m/s'' or ''miles/s''), the unit number relationship (θ) applies, and so we then find that only 2 scalars are needed. This is because in a defined ratio they will overlap and cancel, for example in the following ratios; scalar units for ampere ''a'' = ''u''<sup>3</sup>, length ''l'' = ''u''<sup>-13</sup>, time ''t'' = ''u''<sup>-30</sup>, mass ''k'' = ''u''<sup>15</sup> (''u''<sup>Θ</sup> represents unit) :<math>\frac{({u^3})^3{(u^{-13}})^3}{(u^{-30})} = \frac{{(u^{-13})}^{15}} {{(u^{15})}^{9}{(u^{-30})}^{11}} = 1</math> For example if we know the numerical values for ''a'' and ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'', and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know ''k'' … and so if we know any 2 scalars (α and Ω have fixed values) then we can solve the Planck units (for that system of units), and from these, we can solve (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub>). :<math>\frac{a^3 l^3}{t} = \frac{m^{15}} {k^{9} t^{11}} = 1</math> and so <math>{a^3 l^3} = t</math> and <math>{m^{15}} = {k^{9} t^{11}}</math> In this table the 2 scalars used are ''r'' (θ = 8) which is related to momentum, and ''v'' (θ = 17). A further attribute is included, P = the square root of (Planck) momentum. This gives us 3 primary (Planck) units MTP; L, V and A can thus be considered composite objects <ref>Scalar theory in geometrical objects https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Scalars</ref>. {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | 16 = 8*2 | ''r''<sup>2</sup> |- | velocity | <math>V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | ''v'' |- | length | <math>L = V T = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha_{inv} P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>a = \frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} === Mathematical electron === The mathematical electron formula ψ incorporates the dimensioned Planck units but itself is dimension-less (units = scalars = 1). Here ψ is defined in terms of ''σ<sub>e</sub>'', where AL is an ampere-meter (ampere-length = ''e*c'' are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]). :<math>T = \pi,\; unit = u^{-30},\;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; unit = u^{(3 \;-13 \;= \;-10)},\; scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23},\;unit = 1</math> (unit-less) Both units and scalars cancel. ===== Electron parameters ===== We can solve the electron parameters; electron mass, wavelength, frequency, charge ... as the frequency of the Planck units themselves, and this frequency is ψ. :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] λ<sub>e</sub> = 2.4263102367e-12m (CODATA 2014) :<math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> = 2.4263102386e-12m (L ⇔ [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]) [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] m<sub>e</sub> = 9.10938356e-31kg (CODATA 2014) :<math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> = 9.1093823211e-31kg (M ⇔ [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] e = 1.6021766208e-19C (CODATA 2014) :<math>e^* = A\;T</math> = 1.6021765130e-19 (T ⇔ [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] R = 10973731.568508/m (CODATA 2014) :<math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha_{inv}^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha_{inv}^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> = 10973731.568508 From the above formulas, we see that wavelength is ψ units of Planck length, frequency is ψ units of Planck time ... however the electron mass is only 1 unit of Planck mass. ===== Electron Mass ===== Particle mass is a unit of Planck mass that occurs only once per ψ units of Planck time, the other parameters are continuums of the Planck units. :units <math>\psi = \frac{(AL)^3}{T}</math> = 1 This may be interpreted as; for ψ units of Planck time the electron has wavelength L, charge A ... and then the AL combine with time T (A<sup>3</sup>L<sup>3</sup>/T) and the units (and scalars) cancel. The electron is now mass (for 1 unit of Planck time). In this consideration, the electron is an event that oscillates over time between an electric wave state (duration ψ units of Planck time) to a unit of Planck mass point state (1 unit of Planck time). The electron is a quantum scale event, it does not exist at the discrete Planck scale (and so therefore neither does the quantum scale). As electron mass is the frequency of the geometrical Planck mass M = 1, which is a point (and so with point co-ordinates), then we have a model for a [[w:black hole electron |black-hole electron]], the electron function ψ centered around this unit of Planck mass. When the wave-state (A*L)<sup>3</sup>/T units collapse, this black-hole center (point) is exposed for 1 unit of (Planck) time. The electron is 'now' (a unit of Planck) mass. Mass in this consideration is not a constant property of the particle, rather the measured particle mass ''m'' would refer to the average mass, the average occurrence of the discrete Planck mass point-state over time. The formula ''E = hf'' is a measure of the frequency ''f'' of occurrence of [[w:Planck constant |Planck's constant ''h'']] and applies to the electric wave-state. As for each wave-state there is a corresponding mass point-state, then for a particle ''hf == mc2''. Notably however the ''c'' term is a fixed constant unlike the ''f'' term, and so the ''m'' term is the frequency term, it is referring to an average mass (mass which is measured over time) rather than a constant mass (mass as a constant property of the particle at unit Planck time). Thus as noted, when we refer to mass as a constant property, we are referring to average mass at the quantum scale, and the electron as a quantum-state particle. If the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding |scaffolding of the universe]] includes units of Planck mass '''M''', then it is not necessary for a particle itself to have mass, what we define as electron mass could be the absence of electron <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title= 1. Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3333513}}</ref>. ===== Quarks and Spin===== The charge on the electron derives from the embedded ampere A and length L, the electron formula ψ itself is dimensionless. These AL magnetic monopoles would seem to be analogous to quarks (there are 3 monopoles per electron), but due to the symmetry and so stability of the geometrical ψ there is no clear fracture point by which an electron could decay, and so this would be difficult to test. We can however conjecture on what a quark solution might look like, the advantage with this approach being that we do not need to introduce new 'entities' for our quarks, the Planck units embedded within the electron suffice <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 7. Geometric Origin of Quarks and Spin, the Mathematical Electron extended |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.21695.16808/1 }}</ref>. ====== Quarks====== Electron formula :<math>\psi = 2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = 1, scalars = 1</math> Time :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> AL magnetic monopole :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; u^{-10}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> If <math>\sigma_{e}</math> could equate to a quark with an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of {{sfrac|-1|3}}[[w:elementary charge|''e'']], then it would be an analogue of the '''D''' quark. 3 of these D quarks would constitute the electron as DDD = (AL)*(AL)*(AL). We would assume that the charge on the [[w:positron |positron]] (anti-matter electron) is just the inverse of the above, however there is 1 problem, the AL (A; θ=3, L; θ=-13) units = -10, and if we look at the [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Table_of_Constants |table of constants]], there is no 'units = +10' combination that can include A. We cannot make an inverse electron. However we can make a [[w:Planck temperature|Planck temperature T<sub>p</sub>]] AV ''monopole'' (ampere-velocity). :<math>T_p = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha_{inv}},\; u^{20}, \;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>\sigma_{t} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 T_p}{2\pi} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A V}{2\pi^2} = ({2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5}),\; u^{20},\;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}</math> :<math>\psi = (2T) \sigma_{t}^2 \sigma_{e} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = (u^{-30}) (u^{20})^2 (u^{-10}) = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) (\frac{v^4}{r^6})^2 \frac{r^3}{v^2} = 1</math> The units for <math>\sigma_{t}</math> = +20, and so if units = -10 equates to {{sfrac|-1|3}}e, then we may conjecture that units = +20 equates to {{sfrac|2|3}}e, which would be the analogue of the '''U''' quark. Our plus charge now becomes DUU, and so although the positron has the same wavelength, frequency, mass and charge magnitude as the electron (both solve to ψ), internally its charge structure resembles that of the proton, the positron is not simply an inverse of the electron. This could have implications for the missing anti-matter, and for why the charge magnitude of the proton is ''exactly'' the charge magnitude of the electron. :<math>D = \sigma_{e},\; unit = u^{-10},\; charge = \frac{-1e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>U = \sigma_{t},\; unit = u^{20},\; charge = \frac{2e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}</math> Numerically: Adding a proton and electron gives (proton) UUD & DDD (electron) = 2(UDD) = 20 -10 -10 = 0 (zero charge), scalars = 0. Converting between U and D via U & DDD (electron) = 20 -10 -10 -10 = -10 (D), scalars = <math>\frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> ====== Spin ====== [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity |Relativity at the Planck scale]] can be described by a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems; an expanding (in Planck steps at the speed of light) 4-axis hyper-sphere projecting onto a 3-D space <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282 }}</ref>. In this scenario, particles (with mass) are pulled along by the expansion of the hyper-sphere, this then requires particles to have an axis; generically labeled N-S, with the N denoting the direction of particle travel within the hyper-sphere. Changing the direction of travel involves changing the orientation of the particle N-S axis. We can link that external N--S axis to the internal monopole (DDD) geometry, and from this show how the three internal phases produce the spin-½ transformation law under spatial rotations about the N-S direction. ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ===3+1 oscillation levels=== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) == External links == * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) * [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/ The Matrix, (1999)] * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras "all is number"] - Stanford University * [[w:Simulation Hypothesis | Simulation Hypothesis]] * [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]] * [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]] * [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ grer7i40omxm4szgckot2c4fp0e8cw5 2 250057 2816789 2785992 2026-06-25T04:08:58Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Simulating gravitational and atomic orbits via n-body rotating particle-particle orbital pairs at the Planck scale''' The following describes a geometrical method for simulating gravitational orbits <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=3. Gravitational orbits from n-body rotating particle-particle orbital pairs |journal=SSRN |date=Dec 2021 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3444571}}</ref> and atomic orbitals <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=4. Geometrical origins of quantization in H atom electron transitions |journal=SSRN |date=Dec 2022 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3703266}}</ref> via an n-body network of rotating individual particle-particle orbital pairs . Although the simulation is dimensionless (the only physical constant used is the [[w:fine structure constant |fine structure constant alpha]]), it can translate via the [[w:Planck_units |Planck units]] for comparisons with real world orbits. The orbits generated by this dimensionless geometrical approach can be formulated, and despite not using Newtonian physics these formulas demonstrate consistency; for example the derived formulas for radius R, period T and (M + m) will reduce [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck)#Kepler's_formula_=_G |Kepler's formula]] to '''G''' <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/maple-code-Kepler.html maple code</ref>. Likewise the atomic orbital shells naturally quantize according to pi without relying on built-in postulates. [[File:Gravitational-regular-3body-orbit.gif|thumb|right|640px|A regular 3-body orbit. The simulation begins with the start (x, y) co-ordinates of each point. No other parameters are required. r0=2*α; x1=1789.5722983; y1=0; x2=cos(pi*2/3)*r0; y2=sin(pi*2/3)*r0; x3=cos(pi*2/3)*r0; y3=sin(pi*2/3)*r0]] :<math>\frac{4 \pi^2 R^3}{(M+m) T^2} = \frac{l_p c^2}{m_P} = G</math> The simulation source code(s) used here are listed below, these give a precise description of this orbital model and so can be used as reference <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Orbital model simulation source codes</ref>. For simulating gravity, orbiting objects ''A'', ''B'', ''C''... are sub-divided into discrete points, each point can be represented as 1 unit of [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] ''m''<sub>P</sub> (for example, a 1kg satellite would be divided into 1kg/''m''<sub>P</sub> = 45940509 points). Each point in object ''A'' then forms an orbital pair with every point in objects ''B'', ''C''..., resulting in a universe-wide, n-body network of rotating point-to-point orbital pairs . Each orbital pair rotates 1 unit of length per unit of time, when these orbital pair rotations are summed and mapped over time, gravitational orbits emerge between the objects ''A'', ''B'', ''C''... The base simulation requires only the start position (''x'', ''y'' coordinates) of each point, as it maps only rotations of the points within their respective orbital pairs then information regarding the macro objects ''A'', ''B'', ''C''...; momentum, center of mass, barycenter etc ... is not required (each orbital is calculated independently of all other orbitals). For simulating electron transition within the atom, the same program is used. The electron is assigned as a single point, the nucleus as multiple points clustered together (a 2-body orbit), and an incoming 'photon' (a unit of length) is added to (increases) the electron - proton orbital radius in a series of discrete steps (rather than a single 'jump' between orbital shells). As the electron continues to orbit the nucleus during this transition phase, the electron path traces a [[w:hyperbolic spiral |hyperbolic spiral]]. Although we are mapping the electron transition as a gravitational orbit on a 2-D plane, periodically the transition spiral angles converge to give an integer orbital radius (360°=4''r'', 360+120°=9''r'', 360+180°=16''r'', 360+216°=25''r'' ... 720°=∞''r''), a radial quantization (as a function of pi and so of geometrical origin) naturally emerges. Furthermore, the transition steps between these radius can then be used to solve the transition frequency, replicating the Bohr model. The gravitational orbit returns results analogous to the Bohr model and the 2-photon orbital model approach complements the (electric wave-state) [[w:Schrodinger equation |Schrodinger wave equation]]. [[File:complex-orbit-pts26-r17-1-7-1.gif|thumb|right|640px|By selecting the start co-ordinates on a 2-D plane for each point accordingly, we can 'design' the required orbits. The 26 points orbit each other resulting in 325 point-point orbitals.]] === Theory === In the simulation, particles are treated as an electric wave-state to (Planck) mass point-state oscillation, the wave-state as the duration of particle frequency in Planck time units, the point-state duration as 1 unit of Planck time (as a point, this state can be assigned mapping coordinates), the particle itself is a continuous oscillation between these 2 states (i.e.: the particle is not a fixed entity). For example, an electron has a frequency (wave-state duration) = 10<sup>23</sup> units of Planck time followed by the mass state (1 unit of Planck time). The background to this oscillation is given in the [[v:Electron (mathematical) |mathematical electron]] model. If the electron '''has (is)''' mass (1 unit of Planck mass) for 1 unit of Planck time, and then '''no''' mass for 10<sup>23</sup> units of Planck time (the wave-state), then in order for a (hypothetical) object composed only of electrons to '''have (be)''' 1 unit of Planck mass at every unit of Planck time, the object will require 10<sup>23</sup> electrons. This is because orbital rotation occurs at each unit of Planck time and so the simulation requires this object to have a unit of Planck mass at each unit of Planck time (i.e.: on average there will always be 1 electron in the mass point state). We would then measure the mass of this object as 1 Planck mass (the measured mass of an object reflects the average number of units of Planck mass per unit of Planck time). For the simulation program, this Planck mass object can now be defined as a point (it will have point co-ordinates at each unit of Planck time and so can be mapped). As the simulation is dividing the mass of objects into these Planck mass size points and then rotating these points around each other as point-to-point orbital pairs, then by definition gravity is a mass to mass interaction. Nevertheless, although this is a mass-point to mass-point rotation, and so referred to here as a point-point orbital, it is still a particle to particle orbital, albeit the particles are both in the mass state. We can also map individual particle to particle orbitals albeit as gravitational orbits, the H atom is a well-researched particle-to-particle orbital pair (an electron orbiting a proton) and so can be used as reference. To map orbital transitions between energy levels, the simulation uses the [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck)#Photon_orbital_model |photon-orbital model]], in which the orbital (Bohr) radius is treated as a 'physical wave' akin to the photon albeit of inverse or reverse phase. The photon can be considered as a moving wave, the orbital radius as a standing/rotating wave (trapped between the electron and proton). Orbital momentum derives from this orbital radius, it is the rotation of the orbital radius that pulls the electron, resulting in the electron orbit around the nucleus. Furthermore, orbital transition (between orbitals) occurs between the orbital radius and the photon, the electron has a passive role. Transition (the electron path) follows a specific [[v:Fine-structure_constant_(spiral) |hyperbolic spiral]] for which the angle component periodically converges to give integer radius where ''r'' = Bohr radius; at 360° radius =4''r'', 360+120°=9''r'', 360+180°=16''r'', 360+216°=25''r'' ... 720°=∞''r''. As these spiral angles (360°, 360+120°, 360+180°, 360+216° ...) are linked directly to pi, and as the electron is following a semi-classical gravitational orbit, this particular quantization has a geometrical origin. Although the simulation is not optimized for atomic orbitals (the nucleus is treated simply as a cluster of points), the transition period '''t''' measured between these integer radius can be used to solve the transition frequencies '''f''' via the general formula <math>f/c = t \lambda_H/(n_f^2-n_i^2)</math>. In summary, both gravitational and atomic orbitals reflect the same particle-to-particle orbital pairing, the distinction being the state of the particles; gravitational orbitals are mass to mass whereas atomic orbitals are predominately wave to wave. There are not 2 separate forces used by the simulation, instead particles are treated as oscillations between the 2 states (electric wave and mass point). The transition spiral provides the geometric structure; the photon-orbital hybrid (2-Photon model) provides the angular momentum content. === N-body orbitals === [[File:8body-27orbital-gravitational-orbit.gif|thumb|right|640px|8-body (8 mass points, 28 orbitals), the resulting orbit is a function of the start positions of each point]] The simulation universe is a 4-axis hypersphere expanding in increments <ref>Macleod, Malcolm; {{Cite journal |title=1. Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background |journal=SSRN |date=26 March 2014 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3333513 }}</ref> with 3-axis (the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding |hypersphere surface]]) projected onto an (''x'', ''y'') plane with the ''z'' axis as the simulation timeline (the expansion axis). Each point is assigned start (''x'', ''y'', ''z'' = 0) co-ordinates and forms pairs with all other points, resulting in a universe-wide n-body network of point-point orbital pairs. The barycenter for each orbital pairing is its center, the points located at each orbital 'pole'. The simulation itself is dimensionless, simply rotating circles. To translate to dimensioned gravitational or atomic orbits, we can use the Planck units ([[w:Planck mass |Planck mass m<sub>P</sub>]], [[w:Planck length |Planck length l<sub>p</sub>]], [[w:Planck time |Planck time t<sub>p</sub>]]), such that the simulation increments in discrete steps (each step assigned as 1 unit of Planck time), during each step (for each unit of Planck time), the orbitals rotate 1 unit of (Planck) length (at velocity ''c'' = ''l''<sub>p</sub>/''t''<sub>p</sub>) in hyper-sphere co-ordinates. These rotations are then all summed and averaged to give new point co-ordinates. As this occurs for every point before the next increment to the simulation clock (the next unit of Planck time), the orbits can be updated in 'real time' (simulation time) on a serial processor. Setting <math>\alpha_{inv} = \frac{1}{\alpha}</math> = 137.035999177⁠ (CODATA 2022) Orbital pair rotation on the (''x'', ''y'') plane occurs in discrete steps according to an angle '''β''' as defined by the orbital pair radius (the atomic orbital '''β''' has an additional alpha term). :<math>\beta_{gravity} = \frac{1}{r_{ij} r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}}</math> :<math>\beta_{atomic} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\alpha_{inv}} r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}}</math> As the simulation treats each (point-point) orbital independently (independent of all other orbitals), no information regarding the points (other than their initial start coordinates) is required by the simulation. Although orbital and so point rotation occurs at ''c'', the [[v:Relativity (Planck) |hyper-sphere expansion]] <ref>Macleod, Malcolm; {{Cite journal |title=2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN |date=26 March 2014 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282 }}</ref> is equidistant and so `invisible' to the observer. Instead observers (being constrained to 3D space) will register these 4-axis orbits (in hyper-sphere co-ordinates) as a circular motion on a 2-D plane (in 3-D space). An apparent [[w:Time_dilation |time dilation]] effect emerges as a consequence. [[File:4body-orbital-3x10x-gravitational-orbit.gif|thumb|right|640px|Symmetrical 4 body orbit; (3 center mass points, 1 orbiting point, 6 orbital pairs). Note that all points orbit each other.]] ==== 2 body orbits ('''x, y''' plane) ==== For simple 2-body orbits, to reduce computation only 1 point is assigned as the orbiting point and the remaining points are assigned as the central mass. For example the ratio of earth mass to moon mass is 81:1 and so we can simulate this orbit accordingly. However we note that the only actual distinction between a 2-body orbit and a complex orbit being that the central mass points are assigned ('''x, y''') co-ordinates relatively close to each other, and the orbiting point is assigned ('''x, y''') co-ordinates distant from the central points (this becomes the orbital radius) ... this is because the simulation treats all points equally, the center points also orbiting each other according to their orbital radius, for the simulation itself there is no difference between simple 2-body and complex n-body orbits. The [[w:Schwarzschild radius |Schwarzschild radius]] formula in Planck units :<math>r_s = \frac{2 l_p M}{m_P}</math> As the simulation itself is dimensionless, we can remove the dimensioned length component <math>2 l_p</math>, and as each point is analogous to 1 unit of Planck mass <math>m_P</math>, then the Schwarzschild radius for the simulation becomes the number of central mass points. We then assign ('''x, y''') co-ordinates (to the central mass points) within a circle radius <math>r_s</math> = number of central points = total points - 1 (the orbiting point). After every orbital has rotated 1 length unit (anti-clockwise in these examples), the new co-ordinates for each rotation per point are then averaged and summed, the process then repeats. After 1 complete orbit (return to the start position by the orbiting point), the period '''t''' (as the number of increments to the simulation clock) and the ('''x, y''') plane orbit length '''l''' (distance as measured on the 2-D plane) are noted. '''Key''': 1. '''i''' = r_s; the number of center mass points (the orbited object). 2. '''j''' = total number of points, as here there is only 1 orbiting point; '''j''' = '''i''' + 1 3. '''k_r''' is a mass to radius co-efficient in the form <math>j_{max} = (k_r i + 1)</math>. This function defines orbital radius in terms of the central mass Schwarzschild radius (<math>i</math>) and the orbiting point (1), thus quantizing the radius. When <math>k_r</math> = 1 then <math>j_{max} = j</math>, and the radius is at a minimum giving an analogue gravitational principal quantum number <math>n_g = j_{max}/j</math>. 4. '''x, y''' = start co-ordinates for each point (on a 2-D plane), '''z''' = 0. 5. '''r_α''' = a radius constant, here r_α = sqrt(2/α) = 16.55512; where alpha = inverse [[w:fine structure constant |fine structure constant]] = 137.035 999 084 (CODATA 2018). This constant adapts the simulation specifically to gravitational and atomic orbitals. :<math>r_{\alpha} = \sqrt{2\alpha_{inv}} </math> :<math>r_{orbit} = {r_{\alpha_{inv}}}^2 \;*\; r_{wavelength} </math> 6. Rotation angle β :<math>\beta_{orbital} = \frac{1}{r_{ij} r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}}</math> :<math>r_{ij} = \sqrt{\frac{2 j}{i}}</math> (for each gravitational orbital in the simulation) :<math>r_{ij} = \sqrt{2 \alpha_{inv}}</math> (for each atomic orbital in the simulation) ==== Orbital formulas (2-D plane)==== :<math>j = i + 1</math> :<math>r_{orbit} = 2 \alpha_{inv} 2 \frac{(k_r i + 1)^2}{i^2}</math>, orbital radius (center mass to point) :<math>r_{ij} = \sqrt{\frac{i}{j}}</math> (averaged for each orbit) :<math>t_{orbit} = \frac{2\pi}{ \beta_{orbit}} = 16 \pi {\alpha_{inv}}^{3/2} \frac{{(k_r i + 1)}^3}{i^{5/2} j^{1/2}}</math>, orbiting point period :<math>r_{barycenter} = \frac{r_{orbit}}{j}</math> :<math>l_{orbit} = 2 \pi (r_{orbit} - r_{barycenter})</math>, distance travelled by orbiting point :<math>v_{orbit} = \sqrt{\frac{i}{r_{orbit}j}}</math>, orbiting point velocity Example (dimensionless). The simulation parameters agree closely with the calculated parameters: :points = 8 (1 orbiting point and 7 center mass points) <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Gravitational-orbital-simulation-2body.c</ref> :i = 7, j = 8 :k_r = 32 :<math>\sqrt{2j/i}</math> = 1.511858 Calculated :calculated orbit period = 2504836149.00059 :calculated orbit radius = 566322.241497 :calculated orbit length = 3113519.13854 :calculated orbit barycenter = 70790.280187, 0 :n_g = (k_r i + 1)/j = 28.125 Simulation simulation orbit period = 2504836141 simulation orbit length = 3113519.130546298 simulation orbit barycenter; x = 70790.28092, y = 0.000732 ===== Earth moon orbit===== The earth to moon mass ratio approximates 81:1 and so can be simulated as a 2-body orbit with the moon as a single orbiting point as in the above example. Here we use the orbital parameters to determine the value for the mass to radius coefficient k_r. Planck length <math>l_p</math>, Planck mass <math>m_P</math> and <math>c</math> are used to convert between the dimensionless formulas and dimensioned SI units. Reference values :<math>M</math> = 5.9722 x 10²⁴kg (earth) :<math>m</math> = 7.346 x 10²²kg (moon) :<math>T_{orbit}</math> = 27.321661*86400 = 2360591.51s To simplify, we assume a circular orbit which then gives us this radius :<math>R_{orbit} = (\frac{G (M+m) T_{orbit}^2}{4 \pi^2})^{(1/3)}</math> = 384714027m :<math>G = \frac{l_p c^2}{m_P}</math> = 0.66725e-10 The mass ratio :<math>i = \frac{M}{m}</math> = 81.298666, j = i + 1 We then find a value for <math>k_r</math> using T_orbit as our reference (reversing the orbit period equation). :<math>T_o = T_{orbit} \frac{m_P}{M} \frac{c}{l_p} = 16 \pi {\alpha_{inv}}^{3/2} \frac{(k_r i + 1)^3}{i^{5/2} j^{1/2}}</math> (dimensionless orbital period) :<math>k_r = \frac{1}{i} {(\frac{T_o i^{5/2} j^{1/2}}{16 \pi {\alpha_{inv}}^{3/2}})}^{(1/3)} - \frac{1}{i}</math> = 12581.4468 Dimensionless solutions :<math>r_{orbit} = 2 \alpha_{inv} 2 \frac{(k_r i + 1)^2}{i^2}</math> = 86767420100 :<math>t_{orbit} = 16 \pi {\alpha_{inv}}^{3/2} \frac{{(k_r i + 1)}^3}{i^{5/2} j^{1/2}}</math> = 0.159610040233 x 10¹⁸ :<math>r_{barycenter} = \frac{r_{orbit}}{j}</math> = 1054299229.62 :<math>l_{orbit} = 2 \pi (r_{orbit} - r_{barycenter})</math> = 538551421685 :<math>v = \sqrt{\frac{i}{r_{orbit}j}}</math> = 0.33741701 x 10^-5 Converting back to dimensioned values :<math>R = r_{orbit} l_p \frac{M}{m_P} = R_{orbit}</math> = 384714027m :<math>T = t_{orbit} \frac{l_p}{c} \frac{M}{m_P} = T_{orbit}</math> = 2360591.51s :<math>B = \frac{R}{j}</math> = 4674608.301m (barycenter) :<math>L = 2\pi (R - B)</math> = 2387858091.51m (distance moon travelled around the barycenter) :<math>V = c \sqrt{\frac{i}{r_{orbit}j}}</math> = 1011.551m/s (velocity of the moon around the barycenter) If we expand the velocity term :<math>v_{orbit} = c \sqrt{\frac{i}{r_{orbit}j}}</math> :<math>v_{orbit}^3 = \frac{G M}{T_{orbit}} 2\pi \frac{i^2}{j^2}</math> Note: The [[w:standard gravitational parameter | standard gravitational parameter]] ''μ'' is the product of the gravitational constant ''G'' and the mass ''M'' of that body. For several objects in the Solar System, the value of ''μ'' is known to greater accuracy than either ''G'' or ''M''. :<math>\mu_{earth}</math> = 3.986004418(8)e14 :<math>\mu_{moon}</math> = 4.9048695(9)e12 :<math>i = \frac{\mu_{earth}}{\mu_{moon}}</math> = 81.2662685 :<math>k_r = \frac{c}{2 \sqrt{\alpha_{inv}}} {(\frac{T_{orbit}}{2 \pi \mu_{earth}})}^{1/3} \frac{(i+1)}{i}^{1/6} - \frac{1}{i}</math> = 12580.3462 :<math>t_{orbit}</math> = 0.15956776936 x 10¹⁸ :<math>r_{orbit}</math> = 86752239934 ===== Kepler's formula = G===== Kepler's formula reduces to G <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/maple-code-Kepler.html maple code</ref> :<math>R = 2 \alpha_{inv} 2 (\frac{k_r i + 1}{i})^2 l_p \frac{M}{m_P}</math> :<math>T = 16 \pi {\alpha_{inv}}^{3/2} \frac{{(k_r i + 1)}^3}{i^{5/2} (i+1)^{1/2}} \frac{l_p}{c} \frac{M}{m_P}</math> :<math>M+m = M (\frac{i+1}{i})</math> :<math>\frac{4 \pi^2 R^3}{(M+m) T^2} = \frac{l_p c^2}{m_P} = G</math> Maple code : R:=(2/alpha_{inv})*2*((kr*i+1)^2/i^2)*lp*(M/mP): : T:=(16*Pi/alpha_{inv}^(3/2))*((kr*i+1)^3/(i^(5/2)*(i+1)^(1/2)))*(lp/c)*(M/mP): : Mm:=M*(i+1)/i: : simplify(4*Pi^2*R^3/(Mm*T^2)); : Output: lp*c^2/mP [[File:Gravitational-potential-energy-8body-1-2.gif|thumb|right|640px|8-body circular orbit plus 1-body with opposing orbitals 1:2]] ==== Orbital alignment ==== Orbital trajectory is a measure of alignment of the orbitals. In the above examples, all orbitals rotate in the same direction = aligned. If all orbitals are unaligned the object will appear to 'fall' = straight line orbit. In this example, for comparison, onto an 8-body orbit (blue circle orbiting the center mass green circle), is imposed a single point (yellow dot) with a ratio of 1 orbital (anti-clockwise around the center mass) to 2 orbitals (clockwise around the center mass) giving an elliptical orbit. The change in orbit velocity (acceleration towards the center and deceleration from the center) derives automatically from the change in the orbital radius (there is no barycenter). An orbital drift (as determined where the blue and yellow meet) naturally occurs; the eccentricity (shape) of the orbit a function of center mass and the ratio of alignment of the orbitals. A near straight line orbit will have a greater drift and a greater eccentricity than a near circular orbit. The elliptical orbit has a longer period than the circular orbit (which has a 360 degree orbit, the sidereal period). The additional period is known as the anomalistic period and includes the precession angle (360 + precession angle). Note: in these simulations there are only 2 orbital types; clock-wise and anti-clockwise ... in a real world orbit there will be a mixture. ===== Precession ===== Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating body. The first of three tests to establish observational evidence for the theory of general relativity, as proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915, concerned the "anomalous" precession of the[[w:Tests_of_general_relativity | perihelion of Mercury]]. This precession is not predicted by Newtonian gravity. The formula for precession uses the semi-major axis ''a'' (the maximum distance between center of mass) and the semi-minor axis ''b'' (the minimum distance between center of mass). :<math>e = \sqrt{1-\frac{b^2}{a^2}}</math> :<math>\theta = \frac{6\pi G M}{a (1-e^2) c^2}</math> Where ''e'' is the eccentricity of the orbit and θ is the precession angle The frequency of the center mass Schwarzschild radius = <math>i 2 l_p</math>, where ''i'' is the number of Planck mass points in the center mass and ''l''_p is Planck length; ''a'' and ''b'' become :<math>a = r_a i 2 l_p</math> :<math>b = r_b i 2 l_p</math> The formula for <math>r_a</math> :<math>r_a = 2 \alpha 2 \frac{(k_r i + 1)^2}{i^2}</math> For example, the precession angle for Mercury :<math>\theta = \frac{6\pi G M}{a (1-e^2) c^2} = \frac{6\pi \lambda_{sun} a}{2 b^2}</math> = 0.501866 x 10-6 radians The Schwarzschild radius of the sun <math>\lambda_{sun} = i 2 l_p</math> = 2953.25m The eccentricity of Mercury :<math>e = \sqrt{1-\frac{b^2}{a^2}}</math> = 0.203225 (where a = 57909050km and b = 56671523km) In this simulation the ratio of anti-clockwise:clockwise orbitals = 108:1 with orbiting mass = 1 mass unit (k_r = 12) <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Orbital model source code repository</ref>. {| class="wikitable" !Center mass!!angle θ!!θ*i!!eccentricity!!''r''_a, ''r''_b |- | 24 | 0.001175503 | 0.028212072 | 0.194749592 | 79481.8311615, 77959.9920879 |- | 28 | 0.001009240 | 0.028022688 | 0.195433743 | 79403.2724007, 77872.1317383 |- | 32 | 0.000884077 | 0.028290464 | 0.197440737 | 79344.3788203, 77782.4708225 |- | 36 | 0.000786489 | 0.028313604 | 0.197813449 | 79298.5878077, 77731.6227135 |- | 40 | 0.000708274 | 0.028330960 | 0.198373657 | 79261.9645140, 77686.7492830 |- | 44 | 0.000644252 | 0.028347088 | 0.199144931 | 79232.0062928, 77644.9930740 |- | 48 | 0.000590779 | 0.028357392 | 0.200476249 | 79207.0454340, 77599.0285567 |- | 52 | 0.000545493 | 0.028365636 | 0.200748008 | 79185.9277789, 77573.9329729 |- | ... | | | | |- | ∞ | 0.000005888 | | 0.205660603 | |} [[File:Ellipse-extrapolation.png|thumb|right|379px|Extrapolation of simulated elliptical data using the rotating orbital gravity simulator]] At a low mass ratio the mass influences the eccentricity, this influence reduces as mass increases and so the ratio 108:1 was chosen because extrapolating to infinity (the sun:mercury mass ratio = 6025000:1) gives an eccentricity ''e'' = 0.20566 close to that of the Mercury orbit ''e'' = 0.20563. Likewise the extrapolated precession angle = 0.000005888 is only slightly greater than the Mercury orbit angle θ = 0.000005019. Due to computational limitations, only a short radius ''r''_a and low central masses (''M'' 24...52) were simulated. A longer radius and larger central mass values are required for greater precision. Extrapolating over this scale is imprecise however the it does appear that the correlation is within 1-2 orders of magnitude. For the simulation program code <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Gravitational-orbital-elliptical-orbits.cpp</ref> and the extrapolation code used <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Gravitational-orbital-ellipse-extrapolate.py</ref>. [[w:Frame-dragging |Frame dragging]] can also impact the results as the central mass is still of itself a gravitational orbit (the center points also orbit each other), and so the center mass rotates at a relatively high velocity when compared with the orbiting point. Lense-Thirring in dimensionless form; :<math>T = T_d \frac{m_P c}{M l_p}</math> :<math>R = R_d \frac{M l_p}{m_P}</math> :<math>J = J_d \frac{M R^2}{T}</math> :<math>\theta_f = \frac{2 G J T}{c^2 r^2} = 2\frac{J_d}{R_d}</math> ==== Gravitational coupling constant ==== In the above, the points were assigned a mass as a theoretical unit of Planck mass. Conventionally, the [[w:Gravitational coupling constant | Gravitational coupling constant]] ''α_G'' characterizes the gravitational attraction between a given pair of elementary particles in terms of a particle (i.e.: electron) mass to Planck mass ratio; :<math>\alpha_G = \frac{G m_e^2}{\hbar c} = (\frac{m_e}{m_P})(\frac{m_e}{m_P}) = 1.75... x10^{-45}</math> For the purposes of this simulation, particles are treated as an oscillation between an electric wave-state (duration particle frequency) and a mass point-state (duration 1 unit of Planck time). This inverse α_G then represents the probability that any 2 electrons will be in the mass point-state at any unit of Planck time ([[v:Electron_(mathematical) |wave-mass oscillation at the Planck scale]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>). :<math>{\alpha_G}^{-1} = \frac{m_P^2}{m_e^2} = 0.57... x10^{45}</math> As mass is not treated as a constant property of the particle, measured particle mass becomes the averaged frequency of discrete point mass at the Planck level. If 2 dice are thrown simultaneously and a win is 2 'sixes', then approximately every (1/6)x(1/6) = (1/36) = 36 throws (frequency) of the dice will result in a win. Likewise, the inverse of α_G is the frequency of occurrence of the mass point-state between the 2 electrons. As 1 second requires 10⁴² units of Planck time (<math>t_p = 10^{-42}s</math>), this occurs about once every 3 minutes. :<math>\frac{{\alpha_G}^{-1}}{t_p}</math> Gravity now has a similar magnitude to the strong force (at this, the Planck level), albeit this interaction occurs seldom (only once every 3 minutes between 2 electrons), and so when averaged over time (the macro level), gravity appears weak. If particles oscillate between an electric wave state to Planck mass (for 1 unit of Planck-time) point-state, then at any discrete unit of Planck time, a number of particles will simultaneously be in the mass point-state. If an assigned point contains only electrons, and as the frequency of the electron = f_e, then the point will require 10²³ electrons so that, on average for each unit of Planck time there will be 1 electron in the mass point state, and so the point will have a mass equal to Planck mass (i.e.: experience continuous gravity at every unit of Planck time). :<math>f_e = \frac{m_P}{m_e} = 10^{23}</math> For example a 1kg satellite orbits the earth, for any given unit of Planck time, satellite (B) will have <math>1kg/m_P = 45940509</math> particles in the point-state. The earth (A) will have <math>5.9738 \;x10^{24} kg/m_P = 0.274 \;x10^{33}</math> particles in the point-state, and so the earth-satellite coupling constant becomes the number of rotating orbital pairs (at unit of Planck time) between earth and the satellite; :<math>N_{orbitals} = (\frac{m_A}{m_P})(\frac{m_B}{m_P}) = 0.1261\; x10^{41}</math> Earthe parameters: :<math>i = \frac{M_{earth}}{m_P} = 0.27444 \;x10^{33}</math> (earth as the center mass) :<math>i 2 l_p = 0.00887</math> (earth Schwarzschild radius) :<math>s = \frac{1kg}{m_P} = 45940509</math> (1kg orbiting satellite) :<math>N_{orbitals} = i*s = 0.1261 \;x10^{41}</math> The energy required to lift a 1 kg satellite into geosynchronous orbit is the difference between the energy of each of the 2 orbits (geosynchronous and earth). :<math>E_{orbital} = \frac{h c}{2 \pi r_{6371}} - \frac{h c}{2 \pi r_{42164}} = 0.412 x10^{-32}J</math> (energy per orbital) :<math>E_{total} = E_{orbital} N_{orbitals} = 53 MJ/kg</math> The orbital angular momentum of the planets derived from the angular momentum of the respective orbital pairs. :<math>N_{orbitals} = \frac{M_{sun}}{m_P} \frac{M_{planet}}{m_P}</math> :<math>n_g = \sqrt{\frac{R_{radius} m_P}{2 \alpha l_p M_{sun}}} </math> :<math>L_{oam} = 2\pi \frac{M r^2}{T} = N_{orbitals} n_g\frac{h}{2\pi} \sqrt{2 \alpha_{inv}},\;\frac{kg m^2}{s} </math> The orbital angular momentum of the planets; mercury = .9153 x10³⁹ venus = .1844 x10⁴¹ earth = .2662 x10⁴¹ mars = .3530 x10⁴⁰ jupiter = .1929 x10⁴⁴ pluto = .365 x10³⁹ [[File:Newton-vs-Orbital-trajectory_comparison.png|thumb|right|479px|Comparison of Newtonian and Orbital model simulations]] ==== Orbital vs. Newton ==== A 3-body orbit <ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Newton-vs-Orbital_Newton.py</ref><ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ Newton-vs-Orbital_Orbital.py</ref> is compared with the equivalent orbit using Newtonian dynamics. The start positions are the same r0=2*α; x1=3490.3069; y1=0; x2=cos(pi*2/3)*r0; y2=sin(pi*2/3)*r0; x3=cos(pi*2/3)*r0; y3=sin(pi*2/3)*r0 The orbiting point was used to determine the optimal G for the Newtonian orbit (G = 0.4956). Period of orbit (<math>k_r</math> = 2.19006) :<math>t_{calc}</math> = 1122034 :<math>t_{orbital}</math> = 1121397 :<math>t_{newton}</math> = 1125633 [[File:orbit-points32-orbitals496-clumping-over-time.gif|thumb|right|640px|32 mass points (496 orbitals) begin with random co-ordinates, after 2³² steps they have clumped to form 1 large mass and 2 orbiting masses.]] ==== Freely moving points ==== The simulation calculates each point as if freely moving in space, and so is useful with 'dust' clouds where the freedom of movement is not restricted. In this animation, 32 mass points begin with random co-ordinates (the only input parameter here are the start (''x'', ''y'') coordinates of each point). We then fast-forward 2³² steps to see that the points have now clumped to form 1 larger mass and 2 orbiting masses. The larger center mass is then zoomed in on to show the component points are still orbiting each other, there are still 32 freely orbiting points, only the proximity between them has changed, they have formed ''planets''. [[File:relativistic-quantum-gravity-orbitals-codingthecosmos.png|thumb|right|480px|Illustration of B's cylindrical orbit relative to A's time-line axis]] ==== Hyper-sphere orbit ==== {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity}} Each point moves 1 unit of (Planck) length per 1 unit of (Planck) time in '''x, y, z''' (hyper-sphere) co-ordinates, the simulation 4-axis hyper-sphere universe expanding in uniform (Planck) steps (the simulation clock-rate) as the origin of the speed of light, and so (hyper-sphere) time and velocity are constants. Particles are pulled along by this expansion, the expansion as the origin of motion, and so all objects, including orbiting objects, travel at, and only at, the speed of light in these hyper-sphere co-ordinates <ref>Macleod, Malcolm; {{Cite journal |title=2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN |date=2014 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282 }}</ref>. Time becomes [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)#Universe_time-line |time-line]]. While ''B'' (satellite) has a circular orbit period on a 2-axis plane (the horizontal axis representing 3-D space) around ''A'' (planet), it also follows a cylindrical orbit (from B¹ to B¹¹) around the ''A'' time-line (vertical expansion) axis ('''t_d''') in hyper-sphere co-ordinates. ''A'' is moving with the universe expansion (along the time-line axis) at (''v = c''), but is stationary in 3-D space (''v'' = 0). ''B'' is orbiting ''A'' at (''v = c''), but the time-line axis motion is equivalent (and so `invisible') to both ''A'' and ''B'', as a result the orbital period and velocity measures will be defined in terms of 3-D space co-ordinates by observers on ''A'' and ''B''. === Atomic orbitals === [[File:H-orbit-transitions-n1-n2-n3-n1.gif|thumb|right|640px|fig 5. H atom orbital transitions from n1-n2, n2-n3, n3-n1 via 2 photon capture, photons expand/contract the orbital radius. The spiral pattern emerges because the electron is continuously pulled in an anti-clockwise direction by the rotating orbital.]] ==== Gravitational orbit ==== In the context of the gravitational orbital pair model, the atomic orbital is treated as a 2-body orbit (the electron as a point orbiting an n-body central mass 'nucleus'). To simulate electron transition between orbitals, at each step a unit of length is added. As the electron still continues its orbit, instead of a circular path, it traces a spiral path outwards. Notes: 1. Seen from the wave-point oscillation cycle model, the electron is predominately in the electric wave-state (which is a locally undefined state), the simulation program can only calculate the mass point-states, and so we are mapping only the gravitational orbital component of the electron orbit. For the gravitational orbit, the orbit co-ordinates were updated per unit of Planck time (with orbitals rotating 1 unit of Planck length). In the atomic orbital we have only 1 point (the electron), and it occurs as a point only after every wavelength cycle, and so we are updating our orbit only after every wavelength cycle. For example we find that at the lowest (''n'' = 1) orbit, there are about 471964 wave-point oscillations, and so we will map a polygon with 471964 sides (the wave state cannot be mapped). To compensate, the orbital rotation angle is modified such that 471964 steps are required to map 1 complete orbit ; :<math>\beta_{orbital} = \frac{1}{r_{ij} r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}}</math> :<math>r_{ij} = \sqrt{2 \alpha}</math> 2. During transition, at each step 1 unit of the photon is absorbed by the orbital radius, this continues until the photon is completely absorbed, the orbital radius extending proportionately. Photon absorption is not instantaneous, but instead occurs over time according to the photon wavelength. The number of steps required for this absorption then gives us the transition frequency. Notably, at integer (''Bohr'') radius (4''r'', 9''r'', 16''r''...) the spiral angle is a function of pi (2pi, (8/3)pi, 3pi ...), and as this is a linear extrapolation (the orbital radius grows in steps), ''n'' level orbits can be interpreted as specific orbits (which are inherently stable) occurring along the semi-continuous transition orbital path traced by the electron. The electron does not jump between n-levels, but the interim state (the transition phase) between these quantized n-levels is an orbital-photon hybrid state and thus difficult to detect. We may then have the equivalent of a non-integer ''n'', but as it is interchangeable with spiral angle and radius, we need only 1 parameter to calculate the other 2, and as transition frequency can also be determined in terms of angle and radius, we have a simple geometrical model that provides a framework for the transition process yet uses only pi and alpha as inputs. ==== 2-Photon orbital model ==== The Lyman series energy formula can be decomposed: :<math>\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_\infty\left(1 - \frac{1}{n^2}\right) = R_\infty - \frac{R_\infty}{n^2}</math> Mathematically (if not physically) we can divide into 2 waves :<math>\text{Photon}_{n1} = R_\infty</math> :<math>\text{Photon}_{nfinal} = (- \frac{R_\infty}{n^2})</math> :<math>\text{Photon}_{\text{total}} = \text{Photon}_{n1} + (-\text{Photon}_{n\text{final}})</math> This (mathematical) approach permits us to divide the transition into two distinct geometric processes taking place between the incoming photon and the orbital radius, with the electron taking a relatively passive role. Rather than 2 actual distinct photons, we may presume two geometric phases of a single photon absorption, nevertheless the 2-photon image is easier to conceptualize. Note these processes are not instantaneous but rather occur over time in discrete steps; '''Process 1 (Cancellation):''' A photon with energy corresponding to the ''n''=1 orbital frequency '''cancels''' the existing orbital structure. :<math>\text{Photon}_{n1} + \text{Orbital}_{n1} == zero</math> '''Process 2 (Creation):''' A (-) photon with energy corresponding to the <math>n_{\text{final}}</math> orbital '''creates''' the new orbital structure. :<math>\text{Photon}_{nfinal} == \text{Orbital}_{nfinal}</math> During transition, the system exists in a photon-orbital hybrid state. This is not a quantum superposition but a geometric intermediate configuration where: : The incoming photon’s momentum is being transferred incrementally : The orbital structure is simultaneously being dismantled and reconstructed : The electron mediates the momentum transfer through its position : Each steps transfers a quantum of momentum The gravitational orbit returns results analogous to the Bohr model and the 2-photon approach complements the (electric wave-state) Schrodinger equation <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=4. Geometrical origins of quantization in H atom electron transitions |journal=SSRN |date=Dec 2022 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3703266}}</ref>. ==== Theory ==== =====Hyperbolic spiral===== [[File:Hyperbol-spiral-1.svg|thumb|right|320px|Hyperbolic spiral]] A [[w:hyperbolic spiral |hyperbolic spiral]] is a type of [[w:spiral|spiral]] with a pitch angle that increases with distance from its center. As this curve widens (radius '''r''' increases), it approaches an [[w:asymptotic line|asymptotic line]] (the '''y'''-axis) with the limit set by a scaling factor '''a''' (as '''r''' approaches infinity, the '''y''' axis approaches '''a'''). For the particular spiral that the electron transition path maps, periodically the spiral angles converge to give integer radius, the general form for this type of spiral (beginning at the outer limit ranging inwards); :<math>x = a^2 \frac{cos(\varphi)}{\varphi^2},\; y = a^2 \frac{sin(\varphi)}{\varphi^2},\;0 < \varphi < 4\pi</math> :radius = <math>\sqrt(x^2 + y^2) r</math> :<math>\varphi = (2)\pi, \; 4r</math> (360°) :<math>\varphi = (4/3)\pi,\; 9r</math> (240°) :<math>\varphi = (1)\pi, \; 16r</math> (180°) :<math>\varphi = (4/5)\pi, \; 25r</math> (144°) :<math>\varphi = (2/3)\pi, \; 36r</math> (120°) [[File:Bohr atom model (mul).svg|thumb|right|320px|Electron at different ''n'' level orbitals]] =====Principal quantum number '''n'''===== The H atom has 1 proton and 1 electron orbiting the proton, in the [[w:Bohr model |Bohr model]] (which approximates a gravitational orbit), the electron can be found at select radius ([[w:Bohr radius |the Bohr radius]]) from the proton (nucleus), these radius represent the permitted energy levels (orbital regions) at which the electron may orbit the proton. Electron transition (to a higher energy level) occurs when an incoming photon provides the required energy (momentum). Conversely emission of a photon will result in electron transition to a lower energy level. The [[w:principal quantum number |principal quantum number ''n'']] denotes the energy level for each orbital. As ''n'' increases, the electron is at a higher energy level and is therefore less tightly bound to the nucleus (as ''n'' increases, the electron orbit is further from the nucleus). Each shell can accommodate up to ''n''<sup>2</sup> (1, 4, 9, 16 ... ) electrons. Accounting for two states of spin this becomes 2''n''<sup>2</sup> electrons. As these energy levels are fixed according to this integer ''n'', the orbitals may be said to be quantized. =====(Bohr) orbital===== Setting <math>\alpha_{inv} = \frac{1}{\alpha}</math> = 137.035999177⁠ (CODATA 2022) The Bohr radius has 2 components, the dimensionless (the [[w:fine structure constant|fine structure constant alpha]]) and the dimensioned (electron wavelength); :<math>a_0 = \alpha_{inv} \times \lambda_e</math> The orbital radius of this model also includes the proton wavelength and so is slightly greater than 2x the Bohr radius :<math>\lambda_0 = \lambda_p + \lambda_e</math> :<math>r_0 = 2 \alpha_{inv} \times \lambda_0</math> To reduce simulation computing time, only the alpha component is described here, the dimensioned components added later. :<math>r_{orbital} = 2 \alpha_{inv} n^2</math> As a mass point, the electron orbits the proton at a fixed radius (<math>r_{orbital}</math>) in a series of steps (the duration of each step corresponds to the wavelength component). The distance travelled per step (per wave-point oscillation) equates to the distance between mass point states and is the inverse of the radius. [[File:atomic-orbital-rotation-step.png|thumb|right|208px|electron (blue dot) moving 1 step anti-clockwise along the alpha orbital circumference]] length = <math>l_{step} = \frac{1}{r_{orbital}}</math> Duration = 1 step per wavelength and so velocity velocity = <math>v_{orbital} = v_{step} = \frac{1}{2\alpha_{inv} n}</math> Giving period of orbit period = <math>t_{orbital} = \frac{2\pi r_{orbital}} {v_{orbital}} = 2\pi 2\alpha_{inv} 2\alpha_{inv} n^3 </math> The (reference) orbital (''n'' = 1) :<math>t_{n1} = 2\pi 4 \alpha_{inv}^2</math> = 471964.356... The angle of rotation depends on the orbital radius :<math>\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}\sqrt{2\alpha_{inv}}}</math> ===== 2-Photon orbitals ===== The electron can jump between ''n'' energy levels via the absorption or emission of a photon. In the 2-photon orbital model <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=4. Geometrical origins of quantization in H atom electron transitions |journal=SSRN |date=Dec 2022 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3703266}}</ref>, the orbital (Bohr) radius is treated as a 'physical wave' (has physical properties) akin to the photon albeit an inverse such that <math>orbital \;radius + photon = zero</math> (they cancel). As such it is the orbital radius itself that absorbs or emits the photon during transition, in the process the orbital radius is extended or reduced (until the photon is completely absorbed/emitted). The electron has a `passive' role in the transition phase (mediating the exchange of momentun between the orbital and the photon). It is the rotation of the orbital radius that drives the electron motion, resulting in the electron orbit around the nucleus (orbital momentum comes from the orbital radius), and this rotation continues also during the transition phase resulting in the electron following a hyperbolic spiral path. ====== Spiral (mass point) ====== The photon is divided into 2 photons as per the Rydberg formula (denoted initial and final). :<math>\lambda_{photon} = (+\lambda_i) - (+\lambda_f)</math> The wavelength of the (<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon corresponds to the wavelength of the orbital radius. The (+<math>\lambda_i</math>) will then delete the orbital radius as described above (''orbital'' + ''photon'' = ''zero''), however the (-<math>\lambda_f</math>), because of the Rydberg minus term, will be equivalent to the orbital radius, and so conversely will increase the orbital radius. And so for the duration of the (+<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon wavelength, the orbital radius does not change as the 2 photons cancel each other; :<math>r_{orbital} = r_{orbital} + (\lambda_i - \lambda_f)</math> However, the (<math>\lambda_f</math>) has the longer wavelength, and so after the (<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon has been absorbed, and for the remaining duration of this (<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon wavelength, the orbital radius will be extended until the (<math>\lambda_f</math>) is also absorbed (the '''transition phase'''). For example, the electron is at the ''n'' = 1 orbital. To jump from an initial <math>n_i = 1</math> orbital to a final <math>n_f = 2</math> orbital, first the (<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon is absorbed by the orbital radius (<math>\lambda_i + \lambda_{orbital} = zero</math>), but simultaneously the (-<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon adds to the orbital radius, and so the electron follows a normal ''n'' = 1 orbit (the '''orbital phase'''), then the remaining (<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon continues until it too is absorbed (the '''transition phase'''). :<math>\lambda_i = 1 \times t_{n1}</math> (initial orbital) :<math>\lambda_f = n^2 \times t_{n1}</math> (final orbital) After the (<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon is absorbed, the (<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon still has <math>\lambda_f = (n_f^2 - n_i^2)t_{n1} = 3 t_{n1}</math> steps remaining until it too is absorbed. [[File:atomic-orbital-transition-alpha-steps.png|thumb|right|277px|orbital transition during orbital rotation]] This process does not occur as a single `jump' between energy levels by the electron, but rather absorption/emission of the photon takes place in discrete steps, each step corresponds to a unit of <math>r_{incr}</math> (both photon and orbital radius may be considered as constructs from multiple units of this geometry); :<math>r_{incr} = -\frac{1}{2 \pi 2\alpha_{inv}}</math> At each step 1 unit of <math>r_{incr}</math> is transferred from each photon to the orbital radius. During the orbital phase the <math>r_{incr}</math> unit from the (<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon is canceled by the (-)<math>r_{incr}</math> unit from the (<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon (<math>r_{incr}</math> + (-)<math>r_{incr}</math> = zero) and so the orbital radius does not change. After the (<math>\lambda_i</math>) photon is fully absorbed, the orbital radius continues to absorb (-)<math>r_{incr}</math> units from (what remains of) the (<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon, and as the (<math>\lambda_f</math>) photon is equivalent to the orbital radius, the orbital radius extends in these steps as a consequence. The number of steps <math>N_{steps}</math> required determines (and so can be used to calculate) the transition frequency. Furthermore at each step the orbital radius itself continues to rotate, the electron, being pulled along by this rotation according to angle β, thereby traces a spiral path as the orbital radius length changes. :<math>\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}} r_{\alpha}}</math> The (accumulated) spiral angle <math>\Phi</math> at each <math>n^2</math> :n = 1 to 2: <math>\Phi = 2\pi \; (r = 4 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> :n = 1 to 3: <math>\Phi = \frac{8}{3} \pi \; (r = 9 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> :n = 1 to 4: <math>\Phi = 3\pi \; (r = 16 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> :n = 1 to 5: <math>\Phi = \frac{16}{5}\pi \; (r = 25 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> :n = 1 to 6: <math>\Phi = \frac{10}{3}\pi \; (r = 36 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> :n = 1 to 7: <math>\Phi = \frac{7}{4}\pi \; (r = 49 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> :n = 1 to 8: <math>\Phi = \frac{7}{2}\pi \; (r = 64 \times \; r_{orbital}) </math> In the mass state we can divide the photon into 2 mathematical structures, the transition frequency is defined as the inverse of one oscillation period at the Compton scale, multiplied by the geometric phase factor (including the dimensioned terms). This gives us the solution for the transition frequency and the Bohr radius with a pi-based spiral acting as the transition 'guard-rail'. We are using only alpha and pi, yet the transition frequency can be solved with high precision using the gravity simulator. This gives a geometrical derivation for the Bohr model, which in this context is the gravitational component of the electron orbit. ====== Photon-Orbital Hybrid (wave-state) ====== In this model, atomic orbitals are '''physical rotating structures''' rather than probability distributions. The orbital possesses: :Angular momentum: Quantized by discrete rotation steps :Energy: Stored in the rotating configuration The orbital rotates in discrete steps (β radians per step) rather than continuously. During transition, the system exists in a '''photon-orbital hybrid state'''. This is not a quantum superposition but a '''geometric intermediate configuration''' where: :The incoming photon's momentum is being transferred incrementally :The orbital structure is simultaneously being dismantled and reconstructed :The electron mediates the momentum transfer through its position :Each step transfers a quantum of momentum We then note. '''Standard QM''': Anti-realist---the wavefunction is a calculation tool, not a physical entity. Reality emerges only upon measurement. '''2-photon model''': Realist---orbitals are real rotating structures. The electron follows definite trajectories, even when unobserved. The geometric model thus establishes a '''two-layer architecture''' for encoding quantum states: :Geometric Framework Layer: The hyperbolic spiral structure provides the spatial scaffold <math>(r, \theta, \phi)</math> coordinates with built-in radial quantization <math>r \propto n^2</math> :Photon Information Layer: The absorbed photon carries angular momentum quantum numbers <math>(l, m_l)</math> that modulate this scaffold This separation offers that the Bohr model is not replaced by the Schrodinger equation but rather complements it (the mass-state provides the geometric structure; the photon-orbital hybrid provides the angular momentum content). ===== Simulation ===== [[File:Alpha-hyperbolic-spiral.gif|thumb|right|640px|Bohr radius during ionization, as the H atom electron reaches each ''n'' level, it completes 1 orbit (for illustration) then continues outward (actual velocity will become slower as radius increases according to angle β)]] The gravity simulation (<ref>https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/ source code</ref>) was setup with the electron as the orbiting point and 65 mass points to represent the nucleus (although the proton-electron mass ratio is 1836:1, this would be become a 1837-body set of orbiting points which is too computationally intensive). The program was modified with the rotational angle β as :<math>\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}} r_{\alpha}}</math> To simulate the transition phase, at each step 1 unit of <math>r_{incr} = \frac{1}{2 \pi 2\alpha_{inv}}</math> was added to the proton-electron orbital radius. To convert to frequency in Hz, the dimension components were added :<math>f_H = \frac{2c}{\lambda_e + \lambda_p}</math> = 0.155184298 10<sup>22</sup>s<sup>-1</sup> For n = 1 to n = n<sup>2</sup> :<math>f_n = 2\pi f_H \;\frac{n^2 - 1}{N_{steps}} </math> '''Results''' {| class="wikitable" !<math>r/r_{orbital}</math> !! <math>r/r_{orbital}</math> !! N-steps !! <math>\Phi</math> (deg) !! frequency Hz |- | 4.000000115 | 2.000004018 | 1887860.649 | 0.000017120 | 2466034304131826.5 |- | 8.999994875 | 4.000003286 | 4247681.247 | 120.000001964 | 2922708926063928.0 |- | 15.999987119 | 6.000002004 | 7551428.532 | 180.000002514 | 3082545855782738.5 |} Experimental values for H(1s-ns) transitions. :H(1s-2s) = 2466 061 413 187.035 kHz <ref>http://www2.mpq.mpg.de/~haensch/pdf/Improved%20Measurement%20of%20the%20Hydrogen%201S-2S%20Transition%20Frequency.pdf</ref> :H(1s-3s) = 2922 743 278 665.79 kHz <ref>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33243883/</ref> :H(1s-4s) = 3082 581 563 822.63 kHz <ref>https://codata.org/</ref> Although the simulation was a standard gravitational orbit (charge-less) and without a relativistic correction, the results were quite close; :n = 1 to n = 2: margin = 100 * (experimental - simulated)/experimental = 0.001099% :n = 1 to n = 3: margin = 0.001175% :n = 1 to n = 4: margin = 0.001158% ====== Rydberg atom ====== Here a Rydberg atom is defined as an (idealized) atom with a nucleus of point size and an infinite mass and so the barycenter = atom center at co-ordinates (0, 0). We can simulate this as a simple transition beginning at the initial (''n''<sub>i</sub> = 1) orbital. :<math>\varphi = 0</math> (start angle) :<math>r_{orbital} = r_0 = 2\alpha</math> (nb. Bohr radius = <math>\alpha \lambda_e</math> = α*electron wavelength) :<math>x = r_{orbital},\; y = 0</math> (start co-ordinates) For each step during transition, setting t = step number (FOR t = 1 TO ...), we can calculate the radius ''r'' and <math>n_f</math>. :<math>r = r_{orbital} + \frac{t}{2\pi 2\alpha}</math> (number of increments ''t'' of <math>r_{incr}</math>) :<math>\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}} \sqrt{2\alpha}}</math> :<math>\varphi = \varphi + \beta</math> :<math>n_f^2 = 1 + \frac{t}{2\pi 4\alpha^2}</math> (<math>n_f^2</math> as a function of ''t'') The spiral angle and <math>n_f^2</math> are interchangeable :<math>\varphi = 4 \pi (1 - \frac{1}{{n_f}^2})</math> We can then re-write (<math>n_f</math> is only an integer at prescribed spiral angles); :<math>\beta = \frac{1}{{r_{orbital}}^2 n_f^3}</math> ''n'' orbital transition periods are multiples of the ''n'' = 1 orbital. If we include a relativistic term; :<math>t_{n1} = 2\pi 4 \alpha_{inv}^2 \sqrt{(1 - \frac{1}{4 \alpha_{inv}^2})}</math> = 471961.21478 Then we can compare a theoretical Rydberg (also without including charge) and find a further improvement. For ionization, the second photon is of such long wavelength that its momentum contribution is negligible, and so the ionization transition frequency should correspond closely to the ''n'' = 1 orbital. :H(1s-∞s) = 3288 086 857 127.60 kHz <ref>https://codata.org/ (109678.77174307cm-1)</ref> (''n'' = ∞) This would give us a H(n1) = 471959.2427762 :n = 1: margin = 100 * (H(n1) - t_{n1})/H(n1) = 0.001099% :n = 1 to n = 2: margin = 100 * (experimental - 4 t_{n1})/experimental = 0.000267% :n = 1 to n = 3: margin = 100 * (experimental - 9 t_{n1})/experimental = 0.000398% :n = 1 to n = 4: margin = 100 * (experimental - 16 t_{n1})/experimental = 0.000422% If we use the non-relativistic <math>t_{n1}</math>, then our results are remarkably close to the results from the gravity simulation suggesting that central mass size does not have the major role in determining the transition frequency. :n = 1 to n = 2: margin = 0.000932% :n = 1 to n = 3: margin = 0.001063% :n = 1 to n = 4: margin = 0.001088% ====== Barycenter correction ====== The experimental hydrogen transition frequencies deviate slightly from the ideal Rydberg formula. When normalized, these deviations exhibit a characteristic pattern: a minimum near ''n'' = 2, followed by a rising trend toward the ionization limit as the radius increases. :H(n1) = 471959.242776 :H(n2) = 471959.956565 :H(n3) = 471959.338749 :H(n4) = 471959.222066 The gravity simulation results showed a similar trend suggesting in both cases a barycenter 'wobble'. :sim(n1) = 471964.35638 :sim(n2) = 471965.14481 :sim(n3) = 471964.88601 :sim(n4) = 471964.68921 Therefore, given the possibilities of this gravity simulator as a research tool, the next step is to divide the proton into 3 parts resembling the 3 quarks, and then experiment with different configurations. For example, we could form a U quark cluster and a D quark cluster and then test different arrangements of the clusters (and also different mass ratios) to determine which, if any, reduces the margin. This could give potential insights into the protons internal structure. We can also give the electron further mass points to determine if it also becomes constrained and relaxed. ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ===3+1 oscillation levels=== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) == External links == * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Planck scale modelling using geometrical objects] * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras "all is number"] - Stanford University * [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]] * [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]] * [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] ==References== {{Reflist}} __INDEX__ 5n4zn1q177xhowge38jnz622yr6oiem 0 252874 2816716 2581833 2026-06-24T14:59:26Z Lbocquet 3096797 2816716 wikitext text/x-wiki Read [[w:nginx|nginx]]: http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES '''nginx''' * nginx 1.17.4 Bug fix release 24 Sep 2019 * nginx 1.16 23 Apr 2019 http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES-1.16 * nginx 1.15.10 26 Mar 2019 ** Feature: port ranges in the "listen" directive * nginx 1.15.0 05 Jun 2018 ** Change: now nginx detects missing SSL certificates during configuration testing when using the "ssl" parameter of the "listen" directive * nginx 1.14 <ref>http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES-1.14</ref>, 17 Apr 2018 (Default in [[Ubuntu]] 18.04) * nginx 1.13.9, 20 Feb 2018 ** Feature: [[HTTP/2]] server push support * nginx 1.12, Apr 2017 http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES-1.12 * nginx 1.11.11, 21 Mar 2017 ** Feature: the "worker_shutdown_timeout" directive. * nginx 1.3.13, 19 Feb 2013 ** Feature: support for proxying of [[WebSocket]] connections '''NGINX Plus''' * NGINX Plus Release 6 14/04/2015 <ref>https://www.nginx.com/blog/nginx-plus-r6-released/</ref> [[Category:Server administration]] [[Category:Web server software]] krdwhrz50xj20vr6lb9yu68xvrp4imw 0 255294 2816740 2101775 2026-06-24T16:22:13Z Lbocquet 3096797 2816740 wikitext text/x-wiki Metricbeat allows to collect metrics from your systems and services. Os metrics such as CPU and memory or application metrics from Redis or nginx among others. == Activities == # [[/Install MetricBeat in your system/]] # Read MetricBeat source code https://github.com/elastic/beats/tree/master/metricbeat and review repository https://github.com/elastic/beats # Read [[Beats Release Notes]] == See also == * [[linux server administration/sar|sysstat]] [[Category:Information technology]] 5mvl9j5m8fwomoap509kynbk8msykui 0 263866 2816774 2816627 2026-06-24T23:15:27Z Scogdill 1331941 2816774 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == Lady Randolph Churchill, Winston Churchill's mother, was an American, Jennie Jerome. After Lord Randolph Churchill died in 1895, probably of syphilis, she married twice more, each husband younger than the one before. Marie, Queen of Romania (Roumania at the time) described her as young woman:<blockquote>Lady Randolph was a ... flashing beauty, and might almost be taken for an Italian or a Spaniard. Her eyes were large and dark, her mouth mobile with delicious, almost mischievous curves, her hair blue-black and glossy, she had something of a Creole about her. She was very animated and laughed a lot, showing beautiful white teeth, and always looked happy and amused.<ref>Marie, Queen of Roumania. ''The Story of My Life''. London, 1934, Vol I, p. 81. Qtd in</ref><ref name=":2" /></blockquote> == Also Known As == *Family name: Spencer-Churchill *The family name of the [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough | Duke of Marlborough]] is Spencer-Churchill *This is the page for the family of Randolph Churchill and Jennie Jerome Churchill. *Sir Winston Churchill == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == == Timeline == '''1874 April 15''', Jennie Jerome and Randolph Spencer-Churchill married at the British Embassy in Paris.<ref name=":0">"Jennie Jerome." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106192|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> '''1895 January 29''', Randolph Spencer-Churchill died. '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Lady Randolph Churchill attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her sons Winston and Jack.<ref name=":1">Sebba, Anne. ''American Jennie: The Remarkable Life of Lady Randolph Churchill''. W. W. Norton, 2007.</ref> '''1897 December to early 1898 January''', Lady Randolph wore her costume from the ball at the annual end-of-December-and-early-January party at Blenheim Palace. '''1900 June 3, Sunday, Whit Sunday''', Jennie (Lady Randolph) Churchill was present at a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s#3 June 1900, Sunday|Whitsun house party at Sandringham House]]. She was "just back from her hospital ship which had been a boon in South Africa, but fractiously insisting she is going to marry George Cornwallis-West."<ref name=":28" />{{rp|195, qting Lord Knutsford}} Leslie says, "Jennie, who had been argumentative all weekend, would almost immediately marry her young George."<ref name=":28" />{{rp|197}} '''1900 July 28''', Lady Randolph Churchill and George Cornwallis-West married.<ref name=":0" /> '''1902 August 9''', just after King Edward VII's coronation [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]] tried "to reach the Ladies' before anyone else":<blockquote>After the long ceremony she tried to hurry out in the wake of the royal procession, but found herself stopped by a line of Grenadier Guards. Leonie [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Leslie|Leonie Leslie]]] and Jennie [Lady Randolph Churchill], who were descending from the King's special box, heard her upbraiding the officers in front of all the other peeresses, many of whom were themselves most uncomfortable. Then, trying to push her way past them, she missed her footing and fell headlong down a flight of steps to roll over on her back at the feet of the Chancellor of the Exchequer ([[Social Victorians/People/Hicks-Beach|Michael Hicks Beach]]), who stared paralyzed at this heap of velvet and ermine. The [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Marquis de Soveral]] swiftly took charge of the situation and had her lifted to her feet while [[Social Victorians/People/Asquith|Margot Asquith]] nimbly retrieved the coronet, which was bouncing along the stalls, and placed it back on her head. It was a moment in which younger women naturally had to give precedence to an angry Duchess.<ref name=":28">Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.</ref>{{rp|190}}</blockquote>'''1914 April 1''', Lady Randolph Churchill and George Cornwallis-West divorced.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2021-09-07|title=George Cornwallis-West|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Cornwallis-West&oldid=1042934380|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cornwallis-West.</ref> He married Mrs. Patrick Campbell on 6 April 1914. [[File:La Emperatriz Theodora - Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant.jpg|alt=Old painting of an Empress from ancient times, dressed opulently, like a fantasy figure|thumb|Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant's 1887 Empress Theodora]] == Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == Other members of the Spencer-Churchill family were present and are discussed on the [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough |page for the Duke of Marlborough]].[[File:Jeanette-Jennie-Churchill-ne-Jerome-Lady-Randolph-Churchill-as-the-Empress-Theodora-wife-of-Justinian.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a standing woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a crown and holding an orb|Jennie, Lady Randolph Churchill as Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]] === Jennie (Lady Randolph) Churchill === At the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]], Lady Randolph Churchill was dressed as Empress Theodora of Byzantium. She was at Table 1 in the first supper seating and was in the "Oriental"<ref>“Ball at Devonshire House.” Evening ''Mail'' 05 July 1897 Monday: 8 [of 8], Col. 1a–4c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003187/18970705/070/0008.</ref>{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}} or the Duchess procession.<ref>"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref><ref>"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref> Lafayette's portrait (left) of "Jeanette ('Jennie') Churchill (née Jerome), Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian" in costume is photogravure #193 in the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/Photographs#The Album of Photographs|album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire]] and now in the National Portrait Gallery.<ref>"Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker & Boutall after various photographers." 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.</ref> The printing on the portrait says, "Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian," with a Long S in ''Empress''.<ref name=":2">"Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora." ''Diamond Jubilee Fancy Dress Ball''. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158556/Jeanette-Jennie-Churchill-ne-Jerome-Lady-Randolph-Churchill-as-the-Empress-Theodora-wife-of-Justinian.</ref> The Lafayette Negative Archive has 5 poses plus some closeups of Lady Randolph in costume. They are higher resolution than the image from the album in the National Portrait Gallery but not in the public domain: # Standing, nearly full length, masked background: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1424.html # Seated facing front but looking to her right: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1468a.html # Seated facing front but looking front, left hand raised, white flaw on the negative?: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1468.html # Standing, facing her right, the pose which was used for the album, but the album image appears to have a platform painted in?. Also, two closeups, one of her head and crown, the other of one of the images at the hem of her ??: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1467b.html # Standing, 3/4 to her left facing front, with lily in a ballet-pose hand; closeup of head: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1467e.html [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Benjamin-Constant|Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant]] designed Lady Randolph's 1897 costume, and Jean-Philippe Worth of Paris made it.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1424.html#N_4_|title=Lady Randolph Churchill (1854-1921), née Jennie Jerome by Lafayette 1897|website=lafayette.org.uk|access-date=2026-06-22}}</ref> Benjamin-Constant painted and exhibited Empress ''Theodora'' (above right) in 1887. A 6th-century mosaic icon of Theodora (bottom right) might have influenced Benjamin-Constant, or perhaps Lady Randolph Churchill. Lady Randolph's costume bears some resemblance to both the painting and the mosaic, perhaps through Benjamin-Constant, who was best known as a society portrait painter. He also designed opera soprano Nellie Melba's "angel cloak" for Melba's 1891 performance as Elsa in ''Lohengrin''. The cloak has a row of Byzantine-looking medallions with faces of angels, similar to those at the hem of Lady Randolph Churchill's tunic. Like Lady Randolphs' costume, Melba's cloak was constructed by Jean-Philippe Worth of Paris. The cloak can be seen [https://omeka.cloud.unimelb.edu.au/grainger/exhibits/show/objects_of_fame/item/387 here] (https://omeka.cloud.unimelb.edu.au/grainger/exhibits/show/objects_of_fame/item/387).[[File:Theodora - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy) - croped.jpg|thumb|Detail of 6th-century mosaic icon of Theodora and attendants in the Basilica San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy]] ==== Descriptions of Her Costume ==== *According to the ''Carlisle Patriot'', which often has more detail than other papers, "Among other Eastern Queens of ancient line was Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, in a dress of golden gauze thick with jewel-encrusted embroidery and wearing a high jewelled headdress, while in her right hand she carried a gold diamond-encircled ord [sic]."<ref>"Fancy Dress Ball: Unparalleled Splendour." ''Carlisle Patriot'' Friday 9 July 1897: 7 [of 8], Col. 4a–b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000365/18970709/084/0007.</ref> *"Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, wore a diadem of quite barbaric splendour, with one large jewel resting in the middle of her forehead, and her dress was one of the great successes of the evening."<ref>“The Social Peepshow.” ''Gentlewoman'' 17 July 1897, Saturday: 26 [of 68], Col. 1a–b; print p. 80. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970717/145/0026.</ref> (print p. 80, Col. 1a) *"''Theodora'', the wife of the ''Emperor Justinian'', was next, represented by Lady Randolph Churchill, with the Hon. Mrs. A. Bouurke as her attendant. [new paragraph] Lady Randolph makes a stately ''Theodora''; her long black hair hanging on her shoulders, the under-dress of Eastern fabric, cream, worked in squares of green and gold, and draperies from the neck of green and mauve."<ref>"Tableaux and Burlesque at Blenheim." ''Gentlewoman'' 8 January 1898, Saturday: 59 [print], 41 [of 56, BNA], Col. 1a, 2a, 3a–b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18980108/207/0041.</ref> *Biographer Anne Sebba says she went as Empress Theodora of Byzantium: "The Empress, a former courtesan as powerful as she was beautiful, was the wife of the Emperor Justinian I. She had dozens of admirers and was generally held in low regard by respectable society. Shane [Leslie, her nephew] commented somewhat cruelly that Jennie would have resembled Theodora even without fancy dress."<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 206}} ==== Commentary on Her Costume ==== * The multiple layers make it impossible to see how this costume was constructed, in spite of an unusual number of images to look at. The costume has an elaborate headdress with a veil, an ornate tunic and a '''large''' gauzy underdress with full pagoda sleeves. * Made up of a crown with a veil, a filet around her forehead and earpieces, her headdress must have been heavy. The crown is likely attached to the filet to keeping it from being pulled back by the trailing veil and its own weight. * The fabric of the gauzy underdress and sleeves has sequins or something similar of different colors, perhaps gold and green, as one report suggests. The fabric is gauze or chiffon and not stiff the way organza would be. The fabric of the veil is also gauzy, though it lacks the sequins or beads. * Made of a shiny, perhaps satin, fabric the tunic has two panels (one in front and the other in back) with no side seams. The panels are attached at the shoulders, making squared-off cap sleeves. The panels are decorated with circles made of appliquéd braided trim and beaded flowers between the circles. The circles especially are 3-dimensional, with braid, jewels and beads. The front panel comes just to the floor, and the back one is a few inches longer. The tunic has a row of Byzantine-looking medallions of the faces of angels at the bottom of tunic that makes it even stiffer than the rest of the tunic. These angel faces are a repetition of the similar medallions on Nellie Melba's cloak and perhaps echo Theodora's face on the 6th-century mosaic icon. * Her pigeon-breasted look suggests that she is wearing a Victorian corset. * She is wearing a lot of pearls. Russell Harris says that the orb Lady Randolph is carrying is "based on the Sovereign's Orb, 1661, and Queen Mary's Orb, 1689, (Tower of London)."<ref name=":3" /> ==== The Historical Theodora ==== While Lady Randolph was not known for intellectualism, information written by scholars for a popular audience was available to her, Benjamin-Constant and J. P. Worth about the historical Theodora. Also, Theodora was represented in theatre, paintings and novels in the end of the 19th century and could certainly have been a figure familiar to the people who attended the Duchess of Devonshire's ball. In particular, [[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Bernhardt#Theodora|Sarah Bernhardt starred in an important production of Victorien Sardou's ''Theodora'']], which opened "on 26 December 1884 and ran for 300 performances in Paris and 100 in London."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1360389779|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' has a substantial entry on her, which is reproduced on Bernhardt's page,<ref>J. Br. [James Bryce]. "Theodora." ''Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Information''. Ed., Thomas Spencer Baynes, 9th ed. Vol. XXIII (Vol. 23): ''T to UPS''. pp. 253, Col. 2a – 254, Col. 2b. ''Internet Archive''https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%2023%20%28T-UPS%29%20193592732.23/page/254/mode/2up.</ref> as is the entry from Edward Gibbons' ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''.<ref>Gibbons, Edward. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. Vol. 4. The Ages Digital Library Collections. Albany, OR: Books for the Ages, 1997. Pp. 40–42. ''Internet Archive''https://archive.org/details/DeclineAndFallOfTheRomanEmpireVol.4ByEdwardGibbons/page/38/mode/2up.</ref> === Winston Churchill and Jack Churchill === Winston Churchill is pictured in the ''Gentlewoman'' story and was wearing "green broché."<ref name=":13">“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.</ref>{{rp|p. 34, Col. 3a; 40, Col. 2b}} Jack Churchill was also present.<ref name=":1" /> One of them was wearing a sword and fought a duel at some point that night in the garden? == Demographics == *Nationality: Jennie Jerome was American, born in Brooklyn, New York<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-28|title=Lady Randolph Churchill|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Randolph_Churchill&oldid=975347328|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>; Randolph Spencer-Churchill was English. == Family == *Jennie Jerome Spencer-Churchill, Lady Randolph Churchill (9 January 1854 – 29 June 1921)<ref name=":0" /> *Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill (13 February 1849 – 24 January 1895) #Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) #Major John Strange Spencer-Churchill (4 February 1880 – 23 February 1947) *Major [[Social Victorians/People/Cornwallis-West |George Frederick Myddelton Cornwallis-West]] (14 November 1874 – 1 April 1951)<ref>"Major George Frederick Myddelton Cornwallis-West." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106194|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> *Montagu Phippen Porch (15 March 1877 – 8 November 1964)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-25|title=Montagu Porch|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Montagu_Porch&oldid=1356027047|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965)<ref>"Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106196|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> * Clementine Ogilvy Hozier, Baroness Spencer-Churchill (1 April 1885 – 12 December 1977)<ref>"Clementine Ogilvy Hozier, Baroness Spencer-Churchill." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106197|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> *# Diana Spencer-Churchill (11 July 1909 – 19 October 1963) *# Major Hon. Randolph Frederick Edward Spencer-Churchill (28 May 1911 – 6 June 1968) *# Sarah Millicent Hermione Spencer-Churchill (7 October 1914 – 24 September 1982) *# Marigold Frances Spencer-Churchill (15 November 1918 – 23 August 1921) *# Mary Spencer-Churchill (15 September 1922 – 31 May 2014) === Relations === * Jennie Jerome Churchill was the sister of Leonie Blanche Jerome, who married [[Social Victorians/People/Leslie|Sir John Leslie]]. == Notes and Questions == # Lady Randolph Churchill is #132, Winston Churchill is #179 and Jack Churchill is #223 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who attended]] the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball. == Footnotes == {{reflist}} negbgmzachmhzpv6b9t7jmddv0xcv0f 2 266606 2816791 2785906 2026-06-25T04:20:54Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''2. Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems''' In this model series the universe is an incrementally expanding (in discrete Planck unit steps) 4-axis hyper-sphere, with our 3-D space residing on the surface of the hypersphere. Relativity then becomes a translation between the 2 co-ordinate systems, our 3-D space and the 4-axis hyper-sphere. The hyper-sphere expands in steps (the universe is spatially finite (a closed 4-sphere), but it is not a static system for it expands in steps with every unit of Planck time. At each step Planck units of mass <math>m_P</math>, length <math>l_p</math> and time <math>t_p</math> are added, thus forming a scaffolding for the particle universe. As for each unit of Planck time there is a unit of Planck length, this Planck framework is expanding at a constant rate (the speed of light <math>c = l_p / t_p</math>). As the hypersphere expands, it also pulls particles with it (at the speed of light), and so all particles and objects are traveling at, and only at, the speed of light (in the hyper-sphere frame of reference there is only 1 velocity, ''c''). However, if we consider 3-D space as the surface of the hyper-sphere then motion between particles is relative. Photons are the mechanism of information exchange, as they lack a mass state they can only travel laterally across this surface (in 3-D space) and so this incremental hyper-sphere expansion at velocity ''c'' cannot be observed directly via the electromagnetic spectrum, relativity then becomes the mathematics of perspective translating between the absolute albeit expanding hyper-sphere background and the relative motion of 3D space <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title= 2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282}}</ref>. === Wave-particle oscillation === {{see|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron (mathematical)}} It is proposed as a central theme of this model that particles at the Planck scale are oscillations between an electric wave-state to (Planck) mass point-state, the wave-state as the duration of particle frequency in Planck time units and is the origin of the particle electric properties, the mass point-state as 1 unit of Planck mass (1m<sub>P</sub>) for a duration of 1 unit of Planck time. [[w:Wave-particle duality |Wave-particle duality]] at the Planck scale then becomes a wave-point oscillation, the particle does not exist at any 1 unit of (Planck) time, and so can more precisely be defined as an event (1 complete wave-point oscillation). 1 of the dimensions of the particle is therefore time (frequency), thus particle quantum states also therefore do not occur at the Planck scale, but rather are emergent properties (and so quantum state physics cannot be applied to the Planck scale) <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x}}</ref>. Notably at the mass state the particle has defined (point) co-ordinates within the universe hypersphere and thus can be mapped, conversely the wave-state is undefined. ==== Radial motion ==== [[File:Planck-relativity-1.jpg|thumb|right|358px|A and B in hypersphere co-ordinates from origin O, (frequency 0A = 0B = 6)]] We take 2 particles ''A'' (''v = 0'' in 3D space) and ''B'' (''v = 0.866c'' in 3D space). Both have a frequency = 6; 5t<sub>p</sub> (5 increments to ''t<sub>age</sub>'') in the wave-state followed by 1t<sub>p</sub> (1 increment to ''t''<sub>age</sub>) in the point-state (the point-state is represented by a black dot, diagram right). The hyper-sphere expands radially at the speed of light. Both particles start at the same location; defined as origin ''O''. After 1 second, ''B'' will have traveled 299792458 * 0.866 = 259620km from ''A'' in 3-D space (the horizontal axis). However for both ''A'' and ''B'' the radial axis length is the same ''OA'' = ''OB''. As the surface of the hypersphere constitutes 3-D space, movement along this surface corresponds to distance travelled (in conventional terms). However as the hypersphere is expanding outward (time goes forward), the surface expands with it, and so motion would register as a space-time continuum. We would note that ''A'' has travelled 1 second in time but no distance in meters. ''B'' has travelled both in time and in space (259620km from stationary ''A''). In hypersphere co-ordinates however, both ''A'' and ''B'' have travelled the same radial axis length; ''OA'' = ''OB''. There is only 1 velocity and that is the velocity of expansion; radial axis ''OA'' will always equal ''OB''. For 3D-surface-dwellers, there is a distinction between time and space because the 3D-surface-dweller has no means to register the hypersphere expansion as motion. From the perspective of surface-dweller ''A'' (''v = 0''), ''B'' will have reached the point-state after 3 units of ''t''<sub>age</sub> (3 units of Planck time t<sub>p</sub>) and so will have twice the (relativistic) mass of ''A''. However the hypersphere expands radially from origin ''O'', and so ''A'' will also have traveled the equivalent of 299792458m from ''O'' (radial axis ''OA'' = ''OB'', ''v = c''), and so from the perspective of the hypersphere, ''B'' can equally claim that ''A'' has traveled 259620km from ''B'' in 3-D space terms. The time-line axis (axis of expansion) maps Planck time (1''t''<sub>p</sub>) steps, note that only the particle point-state has defined co-ordinates, and so on this graph ''A'' can only have 6 possible time-line divisions (if including ''v = 0''). As the minimum step is 1 unit of Planck time, this means that ''B'' can attain Planck mass (m<sub>B</sub> = m<sub>P</sub>/1) when at maximum velocity v<sub>max</sub> (relative to the ''A'' time-line axis), but ''B'' can never attain the horizontal axis = velocity ''c'' because in the process at least 1 time step (1 unit of Planck time) is required, and so for particles v<sub>max</sub> can never attain ''c''. However a small particle such as an electron has more time-line divisions, and so can travel faster in 3-D space than can a larger particle (with a shorter wavelength). ==== Particle motion ==== [[File:Planck-relativity-2.jpg|thumb|right|512px|particle wave to point oscillations in hyper-sphere expansion co-ordinates]] Depicted is particle ''B'' at some arbitrary universe time ''t = 1''. ''B'' begins at origin ''O'' (top left) and is pulled (stretched) by the hyper-sphere (pilot wave) expansion in the wave-state (top right). At ''t = 6'', ''B'' collapses back into the mass point state (bottom left) and now has new co-ordinates within the hypersphere, these co-ordinates becoming the new origin ''O’''. In hypersphere coordinates everything travels at, and only at, the speed of expansion = ''c'', this is the origin of all motion, particles (and planets) do not have any inherent motion of their own, they are pulled along by this expansion as particles oscillate from (electric) wave-state to (mass) point-state ... ad-infinitum. ==== Particle N-S axis ==== [[File:Planck-relativity-3.jpg|thumb|right|435px|particle N-S spin axis orientation mapped onto hyper-sphere]] Particles are assigned an N-S spin axis around which particles can rotate (spin left and spin right). The co-ordinates of the point-state are determined by the orientation of the N-S axis. Of all the possible solutions, it is the particle N-S axis which determines where the point-state will next occur. ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' begin together at ''O'', if we can then change the N-S axis angle of ''A'' and ''C'' compared to ''B'', then as the universe expands the ''A'' wave-state and the ''C'' wave-state will be stretched as with the ''B'' wave-state, but the point state co-ordinates of ''A'' (and ''C'') will now reflect their new N-S axis angles of orientation. ''A, B, C'' do not need to have an independent motion; they are being pulled by the universe expansion in different directions (relative to each other). We can thus simulate a transfer of physical momentum to a particle by simply changing the N-S axis. The radial hyper-sphere expansion does the rest. ==== Photons ==== Information between particles is exchanged by photons. In this model, photons are unique: they do not have a mass point-state. and because they lack this mass state, they do not travel along the ''timeline'' h-axis in the same way as matter. Instead, they are ''time-stamped'' and travel laterally across the 3D surface of the expanding hypersphere. This behavior is the key to understanding what we observe. It explains how light moves and why we perceive cosmic redshift. Matter (like particles A and B) is carried ''outward'' with the expansion along the expansion axis. Light (a photon) however travels ''sideways'' across this surface. The photon's total speed through this 4D space—its ''sideways'' motion combined with the ''outward'' expansion—is always equal to the speed of light, ''c''. When a photon travels for a long time across this expanding surface, its wavelength is stretched. This effect is what we observe as cosmological redshift. Unlike a simple Doppler shift seen from an object moving through space, this cosmological redshift is a direct consequence of space itself expanding while the photon is in transit. ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ===3+1 oscillation levels=== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) == External links == * [[w:Simulation_hypothesis | The Simulation hypothesis]] * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Simulation hypothesis modeling at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Physics]] [[Category:Philosophy of science| ]] __INDEX__ 14a8m5xby5zlpkjt2jx6s728lpjewyy 0 267737 2816675 2816615 2026-06-24T13:12:26Z Saltrabook 1417466 2816675 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''The John Snow Prediabetes Research Institute.''' == [[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|Prediabetes-remission research program]] [[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]] Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.]] [[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb|left| John Snow in the early nineteenth century]] [[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|Legend for the map above]] 1. '<nowiki/>'''Prevalence studies'''' 1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 </ref> 1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty </ref> 1.3 Nursing Students Health Database <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk </ref> 1.4. Medical student's Health Database <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n </ref> 1.5. School childrens Health database <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 </ref> 2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx </ref> Danish <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv </ref> Spanish <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv </ref> - General research protocol draft <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s </ref> - Health Promoting Schools <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh </ref> - John Snow Institute bylaws <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r </ref> 3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 <ref>https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute </ref><ref name=":0"> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf </ref> 4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools.. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained: '''5. Minutes from meetings''' <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 </ref> 6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:''' <small>Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Antonio Roberto Abaya MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,</small> ==References== [[Category:Prediabetes ]] <references />Education 1: Research Methodology <ref>https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links</ref> <references /> = Online Meeting , May 11, 2026 = Prediabetes – Remission in Small - and medium economy countries is the target. Keeping eyes open for applications for lifestyle medicine, sporadic supplement metformin Prepare documentation to apply for funding. Clearly define the project title, objectives, scope (countries, communities, ages), strategy (how to collect data, with what equipment, what variables), required materials, and required personnel. Meeting with Lene Daugaard dir. SIMAC Svendborg. Periodically search for organizations that could fund our project. Apply for funding when the opportunity arises. Obtain those funds. In parallel, without interruption, continue prevalence data collection and a comparative study between countries can be conducted using this collected data. Intervention study 16 weeks in one or two of the target populations. Proposed budget for 5 years:  5 mill Dkr. The first year could be collect data from two countries, Denmark and Turkey (Istanbul) compare with the data from Panama, UMIP including a short review study on similar data and an 16 week intervention study with the goal to produce a strategic model for prevalence and effectful intervention to be reported in 1-2 international  articles. Possible funding entities: Innovation Fund Denmark; EIFO; DANIDA; CROWDFOUNDING; European Commission programs; SKOV website; Lundbeckfonden: other iikhmdpiks5yi0ofsotjgysai6doa8z 0 269370 2816689 2816550 2026-06-24T13:37:13Z James500 297601 /* Japan */ Add 2816689 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries). ==Countries== *Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997. *Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ] *Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC] *The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ] *Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ] *Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] *Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ] *Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ] *Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ] *[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ] General series: *National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC] *Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761] *Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C] *The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin. *The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. *World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==England== ===Counties=== See [[s:Portal:Counties]] * Harrison, "County Bibliography" (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false 49] General series *Victoria County History *Oxford County Histories *Pinnock's County Histories *Shire County Guides. Shire Publications. *Cambridge County Geographies *Pike's New Century Series *[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen. Avon *Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102 Bedfordshire *Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ] *Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ] *Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Buckinghamshire *Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ] Cambridgeshire *Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Devon *Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ] *Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ] Derbyshire *Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ] *O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961 Essex *Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC] *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine & Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false p 283]. *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ] *Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ] *Fenn and Lowery, "An Essex Bibliography", Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 & 3 *Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ] *O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962. *A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology & History *Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961 *Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ] *Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club *Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ] *Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kent *Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leicestershire *Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200] *Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ] *Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, "Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003" (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society. *Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978. *Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ] Sussex *Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ] *Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979 ==France== Bibliography: *Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false p 23]. *Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Landscape: *Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ] Agenais: *Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969. Alsace: *Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936 *Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ] Angoumois: *Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anjou: *Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ] Auvergne: *Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Béarn *"Bibliographie Béarnaise", Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ] Brittany *Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach] Burgundy: *Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ] *Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ] *Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC] *Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC] *Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ] Champagne: *Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ] Dauphiné: *Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Lorraine: *Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ] Maine: *Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Normandy: *Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] ==Japan== Bibliography *Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ] *Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986. *Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ] *Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ] *Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ] *A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ] *Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957. **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ] **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ] *Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ] *Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC]. **A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ] *Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2]. *Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up] *Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ] Japanese studies *An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ] *Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies" at pp 1 to 3. *K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20] History and culture *John W Dower. Japanese History & Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies & Research Guides" at chapter 6. Research guides *Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82 Encyclopedias See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]] *Louis-Frédéric. Japan Encyclopedia. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993. **Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999. *[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ] *Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ] *Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ] **Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC] Media *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023. *Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ] *Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Publishers *[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026. Press and journalism *[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025. *Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ] *The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949]. *Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ] *Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ] *William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ] *Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C] *César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japan". Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&pg=PA809#v=onepage&q&f=false 809] to 815. Press annuals *The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998] Summaries of the press *Daily Summary of Japanese Press Foreign correspondents *Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ] *Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ] *Japanese Periodicals Index **Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC] **Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ] *Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ] *Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ] *Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ] *List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental & African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ] *Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011. *Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC **Japan Information *Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues. *Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C] *[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture & History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC] *The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC] *The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up] *Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC] **The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ] *About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ] **News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up] *[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com) *[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/] *The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC] *PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ] **Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ] *Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.] *The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false] **The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Newspapers See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]] *Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009. *[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]] **The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Daily Mail *Japan Weekly Mail *The Japan Chronicle **Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun) **Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955) **The Yomiuri (from 1958) **The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970) *The Asahi Shimbun: Asia & Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/] **Asahi Evening News (from 1954) ***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073] *The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/] **Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910] Sports newspapers; sports dailies *Louise do Rosario, "News-stand stars" in "Japan" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21 *[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], "Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?" in "Sport", [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39 News *[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings. Annuals and year books *This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915]. *The "Japan Gazette" Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14] *The Japan Times Year Book Almanacs *Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995]. *Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ] *[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ] General *Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC] *Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] (DA Pam 550-30). *Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan. **Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ] **This is Japan. Angus & Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ] *Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 "Japan Korea", including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. *Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412. *Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ] *Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ] Handbooks *Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introduction *Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ]. *Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Webb. An Introduction to Japan. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ]. *Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan. Today and yesterday *Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ] Today *Buckley. Japan Today. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Contemporary *Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2011#v=onepage&q&f=false] *McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Modern *Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] The Japanese *Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC] **The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ] **Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ] Travel books *DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C]. *Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988. **Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93. **Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ] *The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ] *Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC] *Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ] *Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. ("All the Best" series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C] **All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967. Languages See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages#Japanese|Japanese]] Music See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]] ==Korea== *Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC] [[Category:Countries]] a6rapjwkt11i9i6xapfacqn9nlig2fs 0 271343 2816780 2250852 2026-06-25T00:08:02Z Jtneill 10242 2816780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Motivation and emotion book theme}} # Each chapter should contribute to the overarching theme of the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book]] which is "understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science". [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] 0ykt01z5v2pf6nuxg4lpalo5wr0byso 2 275012 2816786 2816376 2026-06-25T01:57:54Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects (the mathematical electron model)''' The physical constants form the scaffolding around which the theories of physics are erected, and they define the fabric of our universe, but science has no idea why they take the special numerical values that they do, for these constants follow no discernible pattern. The desire to explain the constants has been one of the driving forces behind efforts to develop a complete unified description of nature, or "theory of everything". Physicists have hoped that such a theory would show that each of the constants of nature ''could have only one logically possible value''. It would reveal an underlying order to the seeming arbitrariness of nature <ref>J. Barrow, J. Webb {{Cite journal |title= Inconsistent constants |journal=Scientific American |volume=292 |pages=56 |date=2005}}</ref>. In the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> model, the electron is assigned a geometrical formula ψ, the formula itself the geometry of 2 dimensionless constants (α, Ω), and resembles the formula for the volume of a torus or surface of a 4-axis hypersphere ψ = 4π<sup>2</sup>r<sup>3</sup>. Embedded within this formula ψ are geometrical analogues of the [[w:Planck units |Planck units]] mass M, time T, length L, ampere A. It is these MLTA Planck objects which confer the electron properties (mass, wavelength, charge ...), and the magnitude of these properties is determined directly by the formula ψ. Thus this geometrical formula for the electron itself encodes the information required to produce the observed physical electron. For example, we can write; [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e = 2\pi L \psi</math> === Planck unit limitations === The SI Planck units are measured; [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] in ''kg'', [[w:Planck length |Planck length]] in ''m'', [[w:Planck time |Planck time]] in ''s'' ... . These units have numerical values, the problem then becomes to derive a mathematical relation between these SI units, because for this we cannot use numerical values; numerical values are simply dimensionless frequencies of the SI unit itself, 299792458 could refer to the speed of light 299792458m/s or equally to the number of apples in a container (299792458 apples), numbers such as 299792458 carry no unit-specific information, and so the units are treated as independent by default. This therefore requires that to the number 299792458 is added a descriptive (the unit), which could be m/s or apples. === Geometrical objects === This inherent restriction can be resolved by assigning to each unit a geometrical object MLTA for which the geometry embeds the attribute (for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function time and so a descriptive unit ''s'' = seconds is not required). We may then combine these objects Lego-style to form more complex objects; from electrons to galaxies, while still retaining the underlying attributes (of mass M, wavelength L, frequency T ...). An apple has mass because its 'geometry' includes the geometrical object for mass. There are 2 principal Planck objects required; mass M = 1 and time T = π, also there is a physical constant ([[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']]), and a mathematical constant Omega. Omega itself is the geometry of π and Euler's number [[w:E_(mathematical_constant) |e]] = 2.718281828459...; :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> A physical constant is defined as a constant embedded within the universe "source code" (it is a given). A mathematical constant however can be derived within the boundaries of the universe itself; π and e can be constructed from integers in series. We can offer an averaged fine structure constant alpha, here assigned the letter ''a'' = 137.03599... to represent the analogue of the inverse fine structure constant α<sup>-1</sup> = 137.03599... In order to combine geometrical objects we require a mathematical relationship between them, here denoted by a unit number θ {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. MT fundamental Planck objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 |} From MTΩα we can derive further Planck unit analogues momentum P, length L and charge A. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. PLTVA Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ |- | [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega) M^{(4/5)} \;(\pi/T)^{(2/15)} = \Omega</math> | 16 |- | velocity | <math>V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 |- | length | <math>L = VT = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 |- | temperature | <math>K = \frac{AV}{2\pi} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{a})</math> | 20 |} As the geometries of dimensionless constants, these objects are also dimensionless and so are independent of any system of units, and of any numerical system, and so could qualify as "natural units" (naturally occuring units); {{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...'' ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as "natural units"... -Max Planck <ref>Planck (1899), p. 479.</ref><ref name="TOM">*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, "[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]", 287–296.</ref>}} === Scalars === To translate from geometrical objects to a numerical system of units requires system dependent scalars ('''kltpva'''). For example; :If we use ''k'' to convert ''M'' (M=1) to the SI Planck mass (M*''k''<sub>SI</sub> = <math>m_P</math>), then ''k''<sub>SI</sub> = 0.2176728e-7kg ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :''c'' = V*''v''<sub>SI</sub> = 299792458m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :''c'' = V*''v''<sub>imp</sub> = 186282miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) ==== Scalar relationships ==== Scalars that translate to the SI unit system must therefore carry not only the numerical conversion but also the unit, i.e.: scalar ''v'' = 11843707.905 m/s. This also means that the scalars follow the unit number relationship θ which we can use in our formulas as ''u''<sup>θ</sup>. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit ''u''<sup>θ</sup> |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' | <math>u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' | <math>u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | ''r''<sup>2</sup> | <math>u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' | <math>u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' | <math>u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | ''q'' | <math>u^3</math> |} Here are examples where units = 1, as such ''only 2 scalars are required'', for example, if we know the numerical value for ''q'' and for ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'' ('''t = q<sup>3</sup>l<sup>3</sup>'''), and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know the value for ''k''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{q^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> In other words, once any 2 scalars have been assigned values, the other scalars are then defined by default, consequently the CODATA 2014 values are used here as only 2 constants (c, [[w:permeability of vacuum|μ<sub>0</sub>]]) are assigned exact values, following the [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]] a total of 4 constants now have independently exact values assigned which is problematic in terms of this model. Scalars ''r'' (θ = 8) and ''v'' (θ = 17) are chosen here for demonstration as they can be derived directly from the 2 constants with exact values; ''c'' and ''μ<sub>0</sub>''. :<math>c = 299792458</math> m/s :<math>\mu_0 = 4\pi / 10^7</math> :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{a};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 4. Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>P = (\Omega) M^{(4/5)} \;(\pi/T)^{(2/15)} = \Omega</math> | 17 | <math>r^2</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | <math>v</math> |- | length | <math>L = VT = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>\frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 5. Comparison; SI and θ ! constant ! θ (SI unit) ! MLTVA ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> (-13+30 = {{font color|red|white|17}}) | ''c*'' = <math>V*v</math> | {{font color|red|white|17}} |- | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> (15-26+30={{font color|red|white|19}}) | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L * \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}</math> | 8*13-17*5={{font color|red|white|19}} |- | ''G'' | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> (-39-15+60={{font color|red|white|6}}) | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M} * \frac{r^5}{v^2}</math> | 8*5-17*2={{font color|red|white|6}} |- | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> (3-30={{font color|red|white|-27}}) | ''e*'' = <math>A T * \frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> | 8*3-17*3={{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | ''k<sub>B</sub>'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> (15-26+60-20={{font color|red|white|29}}) | ''k<sub>B</sub>*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A} * \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}</math> | 8*10-17*3={{font color|red|white|29}} |- | ''μ<sub>0</sub>'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> (15-13+60-6={{font color|red|white|56}}) | ''μ<sub>0</sub>*'' = <math>\frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{a L A^2} * r^7</math> | 8*7={{font color|red|white|56}} |} ====CODATA 2014==== Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k<sub>B</sub>''), consequently here we are using CODATA 2014 values. This is because only 2 dimensioned physical constants can be assigned exact values, once 2 constants (2 scalars) have been assigned values, then all other constants are defined by default. In CODATA 2014 2 constants have exact values; <math>c</math> and the [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] <math>\mu_0</math>. === Dimensionless f(x) === From our unit number relationship we can build a generic dimensionless formula f<sub>X</sub>; <math>f_X = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = \frac{(\frac{r^4}{v})^9 (\frac{r^9}{v^6})^{11}}{(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^{15}} = 1</math> This f<sub>X</sub>, although embedded within are the dimensioned structures for mass, time and length (in the above ratio), would be a dimensionless mathematical structure, units = 1. Thus we may create as much mass, time and length as we wish, the only proviso being that they are created in f<sub>X</sub> ratios, so that regardless of how massive, old and large our universe becomes, it is still in sum total dimensionless. Defining the dimensioned quantities ''r'', ''v'' in SI unit terms. :<math>r = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})^{1/4}</math> :<math>v = \frac{m}{s}</math> Mass :<math>\frac{r^4}{v} = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})\;(\frac{s}{m}) = kg</math> Length :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^5})^4 = \frac{s^{20}}{m^{20}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{11}} = m^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = m^4 f_X = m^4</math> Time :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^6})^4 = \frac{s^{24}}{m^{24}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^6})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{15}}{m^{15}} = s^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = s^4 f_X = s^4</math> And so, although f<sub>X</sub> is a dimensionless mathematical structure, we can embed within it the (mass, length, time ...) structures along with their dimensional attributes (kg, m, s, A ..). The electron itself is an example of an f<sub>X</sub> structure, it (f<sub>electron</sub>) is a dimensionless geometrical object that embeds the physical electron parameters of wavelength, frequency, charge (note: A-m = ampere-meter are the units for a [[w:Magnetic_monopole#In_SI_units |magnetic monopole]]). <math>f_{electron}</math> :<math>units = \frac{A^3 m^3}{s} = \frac{(\frac{v^3}{r^6})^3 (\frac{r^9}{v^5})^3}{(\frac{r^9}{v^6})} = 1</math> We may note that at the macro-level (of planets and stars) these f<sub>X</sub> ratio are not found, and so this level is the domain of the observed physical universe, however at the quantum level, f<sub>X</sub> ratio do appear, f<sub>electron</sub> as an example, the mathematical and physical domains then blurring. This would also explain why physics can measure precisely the parameters of the electron (wavelength, mass ...), but has never found the electron itself. === Fine structure constant === Classically the fine structure constant can be expressed by this formula. :<math>\frac{2 h}{\mu_0 e^2 c} = \color{red}\alpha^{-1} \color{black}</math> If we insert the geometrical analogues in this formula then alpha emerges, units and scalars cancel, serving to validate the unit number relationship and the geometries. :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{a}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{a})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{red}a \color{black}</math> :<math>units \;\frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1</math> :<math>scalars \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> Thus proving that <math> \color{red}\alpha\color{black} = \color{red}\alpha \color{black}</math> === Electron formula === {{main|User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron (mathematical)}} The ''electron object'' (''formula ψ'') is a mathematical particle (units and scalars cancel). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 a \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> units = 1 In this example, embedded within the electron are the objects for charge, length and time ALT. AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 a^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> Associated with the electron are dimensioned parameters, these parameters however are a function of the MLTA units, the formula ψ dictating the frequency of these units. [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] = <math>\frac{r^4}{v})</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] = <math>2\pi\Omega^2\frac{r^9}{v^5})</math> [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e^* = A\;T</math> (T = [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) = <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L a^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} a^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> === Omega === There is a natural number solution for Ω that is a square root implying that Ω can have a plus or a minus solution, and this agrees with the requirements of this theory (in the mass domain Ω occurs as Ω<sup>2</sup> = plus only, in the charge domain Ω occurs as Ω<sup>3</sup> = can be plus or minus; see [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]). :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> We may also consider including [[w:Euler%27s_formula | Euler's_formula]] where {{mvar|i}} is the [[w:imaginary unit | imaginary unit]] <ref>http://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega-derivation-final.pdf Derivation of Omega</ref>. === Dimensionless combinations === According to the unit number relationship, we can also combine the physical constants in combinations where the unit numbers cancel, in this model these combinations are dimensionless, however they still retain SI units. If the model is correct (if the combinations are dimensionless) then the scalars will also have cancelled and numerically the solutions using CODATA or Geometrical objects will approach equality (barring uncertainties). These combinations can be used to test the veracity of the MLTA geometries as natural Planck units. Example: :<math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}} :<math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}}, units = <math>\frac{kg^3 s^8}{m^{18} A^{13}}</math>, units = 1 (15*3-30*8+13*18-3*13 = 0) Note: the geometry <math>\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}</math> (integer n ≥ 0) is common to all ratios where units and scalars cancel (i.e.: only combinations with <math>\Omega^0, \Omega^{15}, \Omega^{30}, \Omega^{45}</math>... will be dimensionless). However there is no Planck unit with a <math>\Omega^{15}</math> component (all constants are combinations of <math>\Omega^2</math> and <math>\Omega^3</math>), and this suggests there is an underlying geometrical base-15. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 6. Dimensionless combinations ! CODATA 2014 mean ! (α, Ω) mean ! units = 1 ! scalars = 1 |- | <math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}</math> = {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.0'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10<sup>92</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}=</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10<sup>92</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1</math> |} === Derivation via CODATA === In this section, we show how to numerically solve the least precise dimensioned physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub> ...) in terms of the 3 most precise dimensioned physical constants); [[w:Speed of light | speed of light]] '''c''' (exact value), [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] '''μ<sub>0</sub>''' (exact value), [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] '''R''' (12-13 digits). We first look for combinations in which the unit numbers are equal, and then add dimensionless numbers as required. For example; :<math>{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39}u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> :<math>\frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 \alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2} = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39} u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> We then replace the geometrical with the SI (''c'', ''μ<sub>0</sub>'', ''R'') <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 7. R, c, μ<sub>0</sub>, a ... ! constant ! formula* ! θ ! Units |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{A^6 s}</math>, 15*3-3*6+30 = {{font color|red|white|57}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math>, θ = 15-13*2+30 = {{font color|red|white|19}} |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 a^{11} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg\; m^3}{A^2 s^2}</math>, 15-13*3-3*2+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|30}} | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math>, θ = -13*3-15+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|6}} |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 a^8 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{s^3}{m^3}</math>, -30*4+13*3 = {{font color|red|white|-81}} | <math>A s</math>, θ = 3-30 = {{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 a^5 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{s^2 A^6}</math>, 15*3+30*2-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|87}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math>, θ = 15-26+60-20 = {{font color|red|white|29}} |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 a^7}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3 s^2}{m^6 A^6}</math>, 15*3-30*2+13*6-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|45}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} a^{49} c^{35} R^8}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^9 s^{17}}{m^{18}A^{18}}</math>, 15*9-30*17+13*18-3*18 = {{font color|red|white|-195}} | <math>m</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|-13}} |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 a^{16} R^2}</math> | u = <math>\frac{kg^6 m^3}{s^7 A^{12}}</math>, 15*6-13*3+30*7-3*12 = {{font color|red|white|225}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |} === Base-15 geometry === :<math>\color{red}ux\color{black} = \frac{v}{r^2} = \frac{1}{k^{1/5} t^{2/15}}</math> , units = <math>\sqrt{\frac{L}{M T}}</math> = u<sup>1</sup> = u (unit number = -13 -15 +30 = 2/2 = 1) :<math>\color{red}uy\color{black} = k^2t</math>, units = <math>M^2 T</math>; (unit number = 15*2 -30 = 0) :<math>\color{red}uA\color{black}</math>, units = <math>\frac{L^{3/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{3/2}}</math>; (unit number = 3) :<math>\color{red}f(x)\color{black}</math>, units = <math>\sqrt{\frac{L^{15}}{M^9 T^{11}}}</math>; (unit number = 0) :<math>\color{red}k\color{black} = 0.21767282521 \times 10^{-7} </math>M (kg) :<math>\color{red}t\color{black} = 0.1715855294 \times 10^{-43} </math>T (s) :<math>\color{red}k^2 t\color{black} = 0.81299726963 \times 10^{-59} </math> M<sup>2</sup>T (kg<sup>2</sup>s) :<math>\color{red}\Omega\color{black} = 2.007134954324946</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 8. Table of Constants (Key:) ! Constant ! Geometry ! θ ! Unit ! Ω<sup>n</sup>, n = θ − 15 × round(θ / 15) ! SI equivalent |- | Gyromagnetic ratio | <math>\pi \Omega^3</math> | <math>\color{red}-42\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-5} = \frac{t^{3/5}}{k^{8/5}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -3) \Rightarrow \Omega^3</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)^3}{uy^5} = \frac{u_A T}{M}\; (\frac{A s}{kg})</math> |- | Time (Planck) | <math>\pi</math> | <math>\color{red}-30\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-3} = t</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -2) \Rightarrow 0</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)^2}{uy^3} = T\;(s)</math> |- | Elementary charge | <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{a}</math> | <math>\color{red}-27\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-3} = \frac{t^{3/5}}{k^{3/5}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -2) \Rightarrow \Omega^3</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)^2}{uy^3} = u_A T \;(A s)</math> |- | Length (Planck) | <math>2\pi^2 \Omega^2</math> | <math>\color{red}-13\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-1} = k^{3/5} t^{{11}/{15}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -1) \Rightarrow \Omega^2</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)}{uy} = L\;(m)</math> |- | Ampere | <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a}</math> | <math>\color{red}3\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} = \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}} </math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 0) \Rightarrow \Omega^3</math> | <math>ux^\theta = u_A\; (A)</math> |- | Gravitational constant | <math>2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6</math> | <math>\color{red}6\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy = k^{4/5} t^{1/5}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 0) \Rightarrow \Omega^6</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} uy = \frac{L^3}{M T^2}\; (\frac{m^3}{kg s^2})</math> |- | Mass (Planck) | <math>1</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}15\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = k</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow 0</math> | <math>\frac{ux^{\theta} uy^2}{f(x)} = M\; (kg)</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>\Omega</math> | <math>\color{red}16\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = \frac{k^{4/5}}{t^{2/{15}}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega</math> | <math>\frac{ux^{\theta} uy^2}{f(x)} = \sqrt{\frac{M L}{T}}\; (\sqrt{\frac{kg m}{s}})</math> |- | Velocity | <math>2\pi \Omega^2</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}17\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = \frac{k^{3/5}}{t^{4/{15}}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega^2</math> | <math>\frac{ux^{\theta} uy^2}{f(x)} = \frac{L}{T}\; (\frac{m}{s})</math> |- | Planck constant | <math>2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4</math> | <math>\color{red}19\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^3 = k^{{11}/5} t^{7/{15}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega^4</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^3}{f(x)} = \frac{M L^2}{T}\; (\frac{kg m^2}{s})</math> |- | Planck temperature | <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{a}</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}20\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = \frac{1}{t^{2/3}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega^5</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^2}{f(x)} = \frac{u_A L}{T}\; (\frac{A m}{s})</math> |- | Boltzmann constant | <math>\frac{a}{2^5 \pi \Omega}</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}29\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^4 = k^{{11}/5} t^{2/{15}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 2) \Rightarrow \Omega^{-1}</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^4}{f(x)^2} = \sqrt{\frac{M^5 T}{L}}\; (\frac{kg m}{A s})</math> |- | Vacuum permeability | <math>\frac{a}{2^{11}\pi^5 \Omega^4}</math> | <math>\color{red}56\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^7 = \frac{k^{14/5}}{t^{7/{15}}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 4) \Rightarrow \Omega^{-4}</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^7}{f(x)^4} = \frac{M^4 T}{L^2}\; (\frac{kg m}{A^2 s^2})</math> |} === Table of Constants === note: <math>\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}</math> constants have no Omega term. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 9. Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! In Planck units ! Geometrical object ! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α<sup>*</sup>) ! SI CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | V | <math>c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} </math> | ''c<sup>*</sup>'' = 299 792 458, unit = u<sup>17</sup> | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | | | ''α<sup>*</sup>'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean) | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})</math> | <math>R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} </math> | ''R<sup>*</sup>'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u<sup>13</sup> | ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65) |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}</math> | ''μ<sub>0</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u<sup>56</sup> | ''μ<sub>0</sub>'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) |- | [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]] | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}</math> | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}</math> | | |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | <math>h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}</math> | ''h<sup>*</sup>'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u<sup>19</sup> | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | <math>G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{6}</math> | ''G<sup>*</sup>'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u<sup>6</sup> | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>e^* = A T</math> | <math>e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{-27}</math> | ''e<sup>*</sup>'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u<sup>-27</sup> | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}</math> | ''k<sub>B</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u<sup>29</sup> | ''k<sub>B</sub>'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | | <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi},\; u^{15}</math> | ''m<sub>e</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u<sup>15</sup> | ''m<sub>e</sub>'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]] | | <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi,\; u^{-13}</math> | ''λ<sub>e</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u<sup>-13</sup> | ''λ<sub>e</sub>'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12 |- | [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]] | <math>T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}</math> | <math>T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} </math> | ''T<sub>p</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u<sup>20</sup> | ''T<sub>p</sub>'' = 1.416 784(16) e32 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | M | <math>m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}</math> | ''m<sub>P</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u<sup>15</sup> | ''m<sub>P</sub>'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | L | <math>l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} </math> | ''l<sub>p</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u<sup>-13</sup> | ''l<sub>p</sub>'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | T | <math>t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} </math> | ''t<sub>p</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u<sup>-30</sup> | ''t<sub>p</sub>'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 |- | [[w:Ampere | Ampere]] | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}</math> | <math>A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 </math> | A<sup>*</sup> = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u<sup>3</sup> | ''e/t<sub>p</sub>'' = 0.297 181 e25 |- | [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]] | <math>R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*</math> | <math>R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}</math> | ''R<sub>K</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u<sup>73</sup> | ''R<sub>K</sub>'' = 25812.807 455 5(59) |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | | <math>\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}</math> | ''γ<sub>e</sub>/2π<sup>*</sup>'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u<sup>-42</sup> | ''γ<sub>e</sub>/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} === Scalars (general)=== :<math>M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)</math> :<math>T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)</math> :<math>L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)</math> :<math>V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)</math> :<math>A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})q = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)</math> ===== MT to LPVA ===== In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT; :<math>M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}</math> :<math>T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}</math> Replacing scalars ''pvlq'' with ''kt'' :<math>P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}</math> :<math>V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3} </math> ===== PV to MTLA ===== In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; :<math>P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}</math> :<math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}</math> Replacing scalars ''kltq'' with ''pv'' :<math>M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} </math> :<math>T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}</math> ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===Article series=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ====General articles==== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ====3+1 oscillation levels==== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) === External links === * [https://theprogrammergod.com/ Overview of the Programmer God (mathematical electron model)] === References === {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ kemktl9du8hknlmd6ncrs24e4iozn17 2816793 2816786 2026-06-25T04:31:25Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816793 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects (the mathematical electron model)''' The physical constants form the scaffolding around which the theories of physics are erected, and they define the fabric of our universe, but science has no idea why they take the special numerical values that they do, for these constants follow no discernible pattern. The desire to explain the constants has been one of the driving forces behind efforts to develop a complete unified description of nature, or "theory of everything". Physicists have hoped that such a theory would show that each of the constants of nature ''could have only one logically possible value''. It would reveal an underlying order to the seeming arbitrariness of nature <ref>J. Barrow, J. Webb {{Cite journal |title= Inconsistent constants |journal=Scientific American |volume=292 |pages=56 |date=2005}}</ref>. In the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> model, the electron is assigned a geometrical formula ψ, the formula itself the geometry of 2 dimensionless constants (α, Ω), and resembles the formula for the volume of a torus or surface of a 4-axis hypersphere ψ = 4π<sup>2</sup>r<sup>3</sup>. Embedded within this formula ψ are geometrical analogues of the [[w:Planck units |Planck units]] mass M, time T, length L, ampere A. It is these MLTA Planck objects which confer the electron properties (mass, wavelength, charge ...), and the magnitude of these properties is determined directly by the formula ψ. Thus this geometrical formula for the electron itself encodes the information required to produce the observed physical electron. For example, we can write; [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e = 2\pi L \psi</math> === Planck unit limitations === The SI Planck units are measured; [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] in ''kg'', [[w:Planck length |Planck length]] in ''m'', [[w:Planck time |Planck time]] in ''s'' ... . These units have numerical values, the problem then becomes to derive a mathematical relation between these SI units, because for this we cannot use numerical values; numerical values are simply dimensionless frequencies of the SI unit itself, 299792458 could refer to the speed of light 299792458m/s or equally to the number of apples in a container (299792458 apples), numbers such as 299792458 carry no unit-specific information, and so the units are treated as independent by default. This therefore requires that to the number 299792458 is added a descriptive (the unit), which could be m/s or apples. === Geometrical objects === This inherent restriction can be resolved by assigning to each unit a geometrical object MLTA for which the geometry embeds the attribute (for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function time and so a descriptive unit ''s'' = seconds is not required). We may then combine these objects Lego-style to form more complex objects; from electrons to galaxies, while still retaining the underlying attributes (of mass M, wavelength L, frequency T ...). An apple has mass because its 'geometry' includes the geometrical object for mass. There are 2 principal Planck objects required; mass M = 1 and time T = π, also there is a physical constant ([[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']]), and a mathematical constant Omega. Omega itself is the geometry of π and Euler's number [[w:E_(mathematical_constant) |e]] = 2.718281828459...; :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> A physical constant is defined as a constant embedded within the universe "source code" (it is a given). A mathematical constant however can be derived within the boundaries of the universe itself; π and e can be constructed from integers in series. We can offer an averaged fine structure constant alpha, here assigned the letter ''a'' = 137.03599... to represent the analogue of the inverse fine structure constant α<sup>-1</sup> = 137.03599... In order to combine geometrical objects we require a mathematical relationship between them, here denoted by a unit number θ {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. MT fundamental Planck objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 |} From MTΩα we can derive further Planck unit analogues momentum P, length L and charge A. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. PLTVA Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ |- | [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega) M^{(4/5)} \;(\pi/T)^{(2/15)} = \Omega</math> | 16 |- | velocity | <math>V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 |- | length | <math>L = VT = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 |- | temperature | <math>K = \frac{AV}{2\pi} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{a})</math> | 20 |} As the geometries of dimensionless constants, these objects are also dimensionless and so are independent of any system of units, and of any numerical system, and so could qualify as "natural units" (naturally occuring units); {{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...'' ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as "natural units"... -Max Planck <ref>Planck (1899), p. 479.</ref><ref name="TOM">*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, "[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]", 287–296.</ref>}} === Scalars === To translate from geometrical objects to a numerical system of units requires system dependent scalars ('''kltpva'''). For example; :If we use ''k'' to convert ''M'' (M=1) to the SI Planck mass (M*''k''<sub>SI</sub> = <math>m_P</math>), then ''k''<sub>SI</sub> = 0.2176728e-7kg ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :''c'' = V*''v''<sub>SI</sub> = 299792458m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :''c'' = V*''v''<sub>imp</sub> = 186282miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) ==== Scalar relationships ==== Scalars that translate to the SI unit system must therefore carry not only the numerical conversion but also the unit, i.e.: scalar ''v'' = 11843707.905 m/s. This also means that the scalars follow the unit number relationship θ which we can use in our formulas as ''u''<sup>θ</sup>. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit ''u''<sup>θ</sup> |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' | <math>u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' | <math>u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | ''r''<sup>2</sup> | <math>u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' | <math>u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' | <math>u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | ''q'' | <math>u^3</math> |} Here are examples where units = 1, as such ''only 2 scalars are required'', for example, if we know the numerical value for ''q'' and for ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'' ('''t = q<sup>3</sup>l<sup>3</sup>'''), and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know the value for ''k''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{q^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> In other words, once any 2 scalars have been assigned values, the other scalars are then defined by default, consequently the CODATA 2014 values are used here as only 2 constants (c, [[w:permeability of vacuum|μ<sub>0</sub>]]) are assigned exact values, following the [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]] a total of 4 constants now have independently exact values assigned which is problematic in terms of this model. Scalars ''r'' (θ = 8) and ''v'' (θ = 17) are chosen here for demonstration as they can be derived directly from the 2 constants with exact values; ''c'' and ''μ<sub>0</sub>''. :<math>c = 299792458</math> m/s :<math>\mu_0 = 4\pi / 10^7</math> :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{a};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 4. Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>P = (\Omega) M^{(4/5)} \;(\pi/T)^{(2/15)} = \Omega</math> | 17 | <math>r^2</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | <math>v</math> |- | length | <math>L = VT = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>\frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 5. Comparison; SI and θ ! constant ! θ (SI unit) ! MLTVA ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> (-13+30 = {{font color|red|white|17}}) | ''c*'' = <math>V*v</math> | {{font color|red|white|17}} |- | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> (15-26+30={{font color|red|white|19}}) | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L * \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}</math> | 8*13-17*5={{font color|red|white|19}} |- | ''G'' | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> (-39-15+60={{font color|red|white|6}}) | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M} * \frac{r^5}{v^2}</math> | 8*5-17*2={{font color|red|white|6}} |- | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> (3-30={{font color|red|white|-27}}) | ''e*'' = <math>A T * \frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> | 8*3-17*3={{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | ''k<sub>B</sub>'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> (15-26+60-20={{font color|red|white|29}}) | ''k<sub>B</sub>*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A} * \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}</math> | 8*10-17*3={{font color|red|white|29}} |- | ''μ<sub>0</sub>'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> (15-13+60-6={{font color|red|white|56}}) | ''μ<sub>0</sub>*'' = <math>\frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{a L A^2} * r^7</math> | 8*7={{font color|red|white|56}} |} ====CODATA 2014==== Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k<sub>B</sub>''), consequently here we are using CODATA 2014 values. This is because only 2 dimensioned physical constants can be assigned exact values, once 2 constants (2 scalars) have been assigned values, then all other constants are defined by default. In CODATA 2014 2 constants have exact values; <math>c</math> and the [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] <math>\mu_0</math>. === Dimensionless f(x) === From our unit number relationship we can build a generic dimensionless formula f<sub>X</sub>; <math>f_X = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = \frac{(\frac{r^4}{v})^9 (\frac{r^9}{v^6})^{11}}{(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^{15}} = 1</math> This f<sub>X</sub>, although embedded within are the dimensioned structures for mass, time and length (in the above ratio), would be a dimensionless mathematical structure, units = 1. Thus we may create as much mass, time and length as we wish, the only proviso being that they are created in f<sub>X</sub> ratios, so that regardless of how massive, old and large our universe becomes, it is still in sum total dimensionless. Defining the dimensioned quantities ''r'', ''v'' in SI unit terms. :<math>r = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})^{1/4}</math> :<math>v = \frac{m}{s}</math> Mass :<math>\frac{r^4}{v} = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})\;(\frac{s}{m}) = kg</math> Length :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^5})^4 = \frac{s^{20}}{m^{20}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{11}} = m^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = m^4 f_X = m^4</math> Time :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^6})^4 = \frac{s^{24}}{m^{24}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^6})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{15}}{m^{15}} = s^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = s^4 f_X = s^4</math> And so, although f<sub>X</sub> is a dimensionless mathematical structure, we can embed within it the (mass, length, time ...) structures along with their dimensional attributes (kg, m, s, A ..). The electron itself is an example of an f<sub>X</sub> structure, it (f<sub>electron</sub>) is a dimensionless geometrical object that embeds the physical electron parameters of wavelength, frequency, charge (note: A-m = ampere-meter are the units for a [[w:Magnetic_monopole#In_SI_units |magnetic monopole]]). <math>f_{electron}</math> :<math>units = \frac{A^3 m^3}{s} = \frac{(\frac{v^3}{r^6})^3 (\frac{r^9}{v^5})^3}{(\frac{r^9}{v^6})} = 1</math> We may note that at the macro-level (of planets and stars) these f<sub>X</sub> ratio are not found, and so this level is the domain of the observed physical universe, however at the quantum level, f<sub>X</sub> ratio do appear, f<sub>electron</sub> as an example, the mathematical and physical domains then blurring. This would also explain why physics can measure precisely the parameters of the electron (wavelength, mass ...), but has never found the electron itself. === Fine structure constant === Classically the fine structure constant can be expressed by this formula. :<math>\frac{2 h}{\mu_0 e^2 c} = \color{red}\alpha^{-1} \color{black}</math> If we insert the geometrical analogues in this formula then alpha emerges, units and scalars cancel, serving to validate the unit number relationship and the geometries. :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{a}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{a})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{red}a \color{black}</math> :<math>units \;\frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1</math> :<math>scalars \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> Thus proving that <math> \color{red}\alpha\color{black} = \color{red}\alpha \color{black}</math> === Electron formula === {{main|User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron (mathematical)}} The ''electron object'' (''formula ψ'') is a mathematical particle (units and scalars cancel). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 a \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> units = 1 In this example, embedded within the electron are the objects for charge, length and time ALT. AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 a^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> Associated with the electron are dimensioned parameters, these parameters however are a function of the MLTA units, the formula ψ dictating the frequency of these units. [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] = <math>\frac{r^4}{v})</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] = <math>2\pi\Omega^2\frac{r^9}{v^5})</math> [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e^* = A\;T</math> (T = [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) = <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L a^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} a^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> === Omega === There is a natural number solution for Ω that is a square root implying that Ω can have a plus or a minus solution, and this agrees with the requirements of this theory (in the mass domain Ω occurs as Ω<sup>2</sup> = plus only, in the charge domain Ω occurs as Ω<sup>3</sup> = can be plus or minus; see [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]). :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> We may also consider including [[w:Euler%27s_formula | Euler's_formula]] where {{mvar|i}} is the [[w:imaginary unit | imaginary unit]] <ref>http://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega-derivation-final.pdf Derivation of Omega</ref>. === Dimensionless combinations === According to the unit number relationship, we can also combine the physical constants in combinations where the unit numbers cancel, in this model these combinations are dimensionless, however they still retain SI units. If the model is correct (if the combinations are dimensionless) then the scalars will also have cancelled and numerically the solutions using CODATA or Geometrical objects will approach equality (barring uncertainties). These combinations can be used to test the veracity of the MLTA geometries as natural Planck units. Example: :<math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}} :<math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}}, units = <math>\frac{kg^3 s^8}{m^{18} A^{13}}</math>, units = 1 (15*3-30*8+13*18-3*13 = 0) Note: the geometry <math>\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}</math> (integer n ≥ 0) is common to all ratios where units and scalars cancel (i.e.: only combinations with <math>\Omega^0, \Omega^{15}, \Omega^{30}, \Omega^{45}</math>... will be dimensionless). However there is no Planck unit with a <math>\Omega^{15}</math> component (all constants are combinations of <math>\Omega^2</math> and <math>\Omega^3</math>), and this suggests there is an underlying geometrical base-15. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 6. Dimensionless combinations ! CODATA 2014 mean ! (α, Ω) mean ! units = 1 ! scalars = 1 |- | <math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}</math> = {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.0'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10<sup>-58</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10<sup>92</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}=</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10<sup>92</sup>'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1</math> |} === Derivation via CODATA === In this section, we show how to numerically solve the least precise dimensioned physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub> ...) in terms of the 3 most precise dimensioned physical constants); [[w:Speed of light | speed of light]] '''c''' (exact value), [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] '''μ<sub>0</sub>''' (exact value), [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] '''R''' (12-13 digits). We first look for combinations in which the unit numbers are equal, and then add dimensionless numbers as required. For example; :<math>{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39}u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> :<math>\frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 \alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2} = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39} u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> We then replace the geometrical with the SI (''c'', ''μ<sub>0</sub>'', ''R'') <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 7. R, c, μ<sub>0</sub>, a ... ! constant ! formula* ! θ ! Units |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{A^6 s}</math>, 15*3-3*6+30 = {{font color|red|white|57}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math>, θ = 15-13*2+30 = {{font color|red|white|19}} |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 a^{11} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg\; m^3}{A^2 s^2}</math>, 15-13*3-3*2+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|30}} | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math>, θ = -13*3-15+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|6}} |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 a^8 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{s^3}{m^3}</math>, -30*4+13*3 = {{font color|red|white|-81}} | <math>A s</math>, θ = 3-30 = {{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 a^5 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{s^2 A^6}</math>, 15*3+30*2-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|87}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math>, θ = 15-26+60-20 = {{font color|red|white|29}} |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 a^7}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3 s^2}{m^6 A^6}</math>, 15*3-30*2+13*6-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|45}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} a^{49} c^{35} R^8}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^9 s^{17}}{m^{18}A^{18}}</math>, 15*9-30*17+13*18-3*18 = {{font color|red|white|-195}} | <math>m</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|-13}} |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 a^{16} R^2}</math> | u = <math>\frac{kg^6 m^3}{s^7 A^{12}}</math>, 15*6-13*3+30*7-3*12 = {{font color|red|white|225}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |} === Base-15 geometry === :<math>\color{red}ux\color{black} = \frac{v}{r^2} = \frac{1}{k^{1/5} t^{2/15}}</math> , units = <math>\sqrt{\frac{L}{M T}}</math> = u<sup>1</sup> = u (unit number = -13 -15 +30 = 2/2 = 1) :<math>\color{red}uy\color{black} = k^2t</math>, units = <math>M^2 T</math>; (unit number = 15*2 -30 = 0) :<math>\color{red}uA\color{black}</math>, units = <math>\frac{L^{3/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{3/2}}</math>; (unit number = 3) :<math>\color{red}f(x)\color{black}</math>, units = <math>\sqrt{\frac{L^{15}}{M^9 T^{11}}}</math>; (unit number = 0) :<math>\color{red}k\color{black} = 0.21767282521 \times 10^{-7} </math>M (kg) :<math>\color{red}t\color{black} = 0.1715855294 \times 10^{-43} </math>T (s) :<math>\color{red}k^2 t\color{black} = 0.81299726963 \times 10^{-59} </math> M<sup>2</sup>T (kg<sup>2</sup>s) :<math>\color{red}\Omega\color{black} = 2.007134954324946</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 8. Table of Constants (Key:) ! Constant ! Geometry ! θ ! Unit ! Ω<sup>n</sup>, n = θ − 15 × round(θ / 15) ! SI equivalent |- | Gyromagnetic ratio | <math>\pi \Omega^3</math> | <math>\color{red}-42\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-5} = \frac{t^{3/5}}{k^{8/5}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -3) \Rightarrow \Omega^3</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)^3}{uy^5} = \frac{u_A T}{M}\; (\frac{A s}{kg})</math> |- | Time (Planck) | <math>\pi</math> | <math>\color{red}-30\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-3} = t</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -2) \Rightarrow 0</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)^2}{uy^3} = T\;(s)</math> |- | Elementary charge | <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{a}</math> | <math>\color{red}-27\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-3} = \frac{t^{3/5}}{k^{3/5}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -2) \Rightarrow \Omega^3</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)^2}{uy^3} = u_A T \;(A s)</math> |- | Length (Planck) | <math>2\pi^2 \Omega^2</math> | <math>\color{red}-13\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^{-1} = k^{3/5} t^{{11}/{15}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times -1) \Rightarrow \Omega^2</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta f(x)}{uy} = L\;(m)</math> |- | Ampere | <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a}</math> | <math>\color{red}3\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} = \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}} </math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 0) \Rightarrow \Omega^3</math> | <math>ux^\theta = u_A\; (A)</math> |- | Gravitational constant | <math>2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6</math> | <math>\color{red}6\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy = k^{4/5} t^{1/5}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 0) \Rightarrow \Omega^6</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} uy = \frac{L^3}{M T^2}\; (\frac{m^3}{kg s^2})</math> |- | Mass (Planck) | <math>1</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}15\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = k</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow 0</math> | <math>\frac{ux^{\theta} uy^2}{f(x)} = M\; (kg)</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>\Omega</math> | <math>\color{red}16\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = \frac{k^{4/5}}{t^{2/{15}}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega</math> | <math>\frac{ux^{\theta} uy^2}{f(x)} = \sqrt{\frac{M L}{T}}\; (\sqrt{\frac{kg m}{s}})</math> |- | Velocity | <math>2\pi \Omega^2</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}17\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = \frac{k^{3/5}}{t^{4/{15}}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega^2</math> | <math>\frac{ux^{\theta} uy^2}{f(x)} = \frac{L}{T}\; (\frac{m}{s})</math> |- | Planck constant | <math>2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4</math> | <math>\color{red}19\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^3 = k^{{11}/5} t^{7/{15}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega^4</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^3}{f(x)} = \frac{M L^2}{T}\; (\frac{kg m^2}{s})</math> |- | Planck temperature | <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{a}</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}20\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^2 = \frac{1}{t^{2/3}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 1) \Rightarrow \Omega^5</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^2}{f(x)} = \frac{u_A L}{T}\; (\frac{A m}{s})</math> |- | Boltzmann constant | <math>\frac{a}{2^5 \pi \Omega}</math> | <math>\color{red}\color{red}29\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^4 = k^{{11}/5} t^{2/{15}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 2) \Rightarrow \Omega^{-1}</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^4}{f(x)^2} = \sqrt{\frac{M^5 T}{L}}\; (\frac{kg m}{A s})</math> |- | Vacuum permeability | <math>\frac{a}{2^{11}\pi^5 \Omega^4}</math> | <math>\color{red}56\color{black}</math> | <math>ux^{\theta} \times uy^7 = \frac{k^{14/5}}{t^{7/{15}}}</math> | <math>\theta - (15 \times 4) \Rightarrow \Omega^{-4}</math> | <math>\frac{ux^\theta uy^7}{f(x)^4} = \frac{M^4 T}{L^2}\; (\frac{kg m}{A^2 s^2})</math> |} === Table of Constants === note: <math>\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}</math> constants have no Omega term. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 9. Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! In Planck units ! Geometrical object ! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α<sup>*</sup>) ! SI CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | V | <math>c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} </math> | ''c<sup>*</sup>'' = 299 792 458, unit = u<sup>17</sup> | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | | | ''α<sup>*</sup>'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean) | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})</math> | <math>R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} </math> | ''R<sup>*</sup>'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u<sup>13</sup> | ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65) |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}</math> | ''μ<sub>0</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u<sup>56</sup> | ''μ<sub>0</sub>'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) |- | [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]] | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}</math> | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}</math> | | |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | <math>h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}</math> | ''h<sup>*</sup>'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u<sup>19</sup> | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | <math>G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{6}</math> | ''G<sup>*</sup>'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u<sup>6</sup> | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>e^* = A T</math> | <math>e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{-27}</math> | ''e<sup>*</sup>'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u<sup>-27</sup> | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}</math> | ''k<sub>B</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u<sup>29</sup> | ''k<sub>B</sub>'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | | <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi},\; u^{15}</math> | ''m<sub>e</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u<sup>15</sup> | ''m<sub>e</sub>'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]] | | <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi,\; u^{-13}</math> | ''λ<sub>e</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u<sup>-13</sup> | ''λ<sub>e</sub>'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12 |- | [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]] | <math>T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}</math> | <math>T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} </math> | ''T<sub>p</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u<sup>20</sup> | ''T<sub>p</sub>'' = 1.416 784(16) e32 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | M | <math>m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}</math> | ''m<sub>P</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u<sup>15</sup> | ''m<sub>P</sub>'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | L | <math>l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} </math> | ''l<sub>p</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u<sup>-13</sup> | ''l<sub>p</sub>'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | T | <math>t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} </math> | ''t<sub>p</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u<sup>-30</sup> | ''t<sub>p</sub>'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 |- | [[w:Ampere | Ampere]] | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}</math> | <math>A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 </math> | A<sup>*</sup> = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u<sup>3</sup> | ''e/t<sub>p</sub>'' = 0.297 181 e25 |- | [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]] | <math>R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*</math> | <math>R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}</math> | ''R<sub>K</sub><sup>*</sup>'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u<sup>73</sup> | ''R<sub>K</sub>'' = 25812.807 455 5(59) |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | | <math>\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}</math> | ''γ<sub>e</sub>/2π<sup>*</sup>'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u<sup>-42</sup> | ''γ<sub>e</sub>/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} === Scalars (general)=== :<math>M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)</math> :<math>T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)</math> :<math>L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)</math> :<math>V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)</math> :<math>A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})q = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)</math> ===== MT to LPVA ===== In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT; :<math>M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}</math> :<math>T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}</math> Replacing scalars ''pvlq'' with ''kt'' :<math>P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}</math> :<math>V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3} </math> ===== PV to MTLA ===== In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; :<math>P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}</math> :<math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}</math> Replacing scalars ''kltq'' with ''pv'' :<math>M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} </math> :<math>T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}</math> ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===Wiki series=== * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Physical_constant_(anomaly)]]: Anomalies within the physical constants * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ===3+1 oscillation levels=== * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe) == External links == * [https://theprogrammergod.com/ Overview of the Programmer God (mathematical electron model)] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ ezhbdv7vpdljrcsiz0xteprjtd59usg 0 285380 2816707 2816607 2026-06-24T14:22:35Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2816707 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260624.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> se853zkwz0zyz7dqqp2orqr3kc15ysb 2 287038 2816790 2785971 2026-06-25T04:17:02Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2816790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Anomalies within the dimensioned physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub>) suggest a mathematical relationship between the units (''kg'' ⇔ 15, ''m'' ⇔ -13, ''s'' ⇔ -30, ''A'' ⇔ 3, ''K'' ⇔ 20).''' A dimensioned [[w:physical constant|''physical constant'']], sometimes denoted a ''fundamental physical constant'', is a [[w:physical quantity|physical quantity]] that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have constant value in time. Common examples being the [[w:Speed of light |speed of light]] ''c'', the [[w:Gravitational constant |gravitational constant]] ''G'', the [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]] ''h'' and the [[w:Elementary charge |elementary charge]] ''e''. These constants are usually measured in terms of [[w:SI units |SI units]] mass (kilogram), length (meter), time (second), charge (ampere), temperature (Kelvin) ... (''kg'', ''m'', ''s'', ''A'', ''K'' ...). These constants form the scaffolding around which the theories of physics are erected, and they define the fabric of our universe, but science has no idea why they take the special numerical values that they do, for these constants follow no discernible pattern. The desire to explain the constants has been one of the driving forces behind efforts to develop a complete unified description of nature, or "theory of everything". Physicists have hoped that such a theory would show that each of the constants of nature ''could have only one logically possible value''. It would reveal an underlying order to the seeming arbitrariness of nature <ref>J. Barrow, J. Webb {{Cite journal |title= Inconsistent constants |journal=Scientific American |volume=292 |pages=56 |date=2005}}</ref>. Notably a physical universe, as opposed to a mathematical universe (a computer simulation), has as a fundamental premise the concept that the universe scaffolding (of mass, space and time) exists, that somehow mass '''<i>is</i>''', space '''<i>is</i>''', time '''<i>is</i>''' ... these dimensions are ''real'', and ''independent'' of each other ... we cannot measure ''distance'' in kilograms and amperes, or ''mass'' using length and temperature. The [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]] resulted in 4 physical constants (''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''k''<sub>B</sub>) being assigned exact values, and this confirmed the independence of their associated SI units as shown in this table. {| class="wikitable" |+ 2019 redefinition of SI base units ! constant ! ! SI units |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Elementary charge |Elementary charge]] | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k<sub>B</sub>'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> |} However there are anomalies which occur in certain combinations of the fundamental (dimensioned) physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub>) which suggest a mathematical relationship between the units (''kg'' ⇔ 15, ''m'' ⇔ -13, ''s'' ⇔ -30, ''A'' ⇔ 3, ''K'' ⇔ 20). In order for these physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub>) to be fundamental, the units '''must be independent of each other''', there cannot be such a unit number relationship ... however these anomalies question this fundamental assumption. Physics has a set of constants defined directly in terms of the units (''kg'', ''m'', ''s'', ''A'', ''K''), these are called [[w:Planck units|Planck units]] (Planck mass, Planck length, Planck time ...), and these Planck units are interchangeable with the physical constants. If we include this unit number relationship (''kg'' ⇔ 15, ''m'' ⇔ -13, ''s'' ⇔ -30, ''A'' ⇔ 3, ''K'' ⇔ 20), then we find that we need only these 3 Planck unit analogues (MTP; mass, time, momentum) and the [[w:fine structure constant |fine structure constant alpha]] to derive and solve all 6 fundamental physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''<sub>e</sub>, ''k''<sub>B</sub>) consistent with [[w:Committee_on_Data_of_the_International_Science_Council|CODATA]] values. This would then question their status as being fundamental. Furthermore our MTP are themselves constructs of 2 mathematical constants; [[w:pi|pi]] and [[w:E_(mathematical_constant)|e]], the only physical constant required is alpha, and this may be because its mathematical origin is still unknown <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x}}</ref>. :<math>M = 1</math> :<math>T = \pi</math> :<math>P = \Omega = \sqrt{\pi^e e^{(1-e)}} = 2.0071349543249462...</math> Every test listed in the following examples using this unit number relationship (''kg'' ⇔ 15, ''m'' ⇔ -13, ''s'' ⇔ -30, ''A'' ⇔ 3, ''K'' ⇔ 20) returns answers consistent with the premise. Furthermore there is '''only 1 possible number relationship''' that satisfies all conditions. Statistically therefore, can these anomalies be dismissed as coincidence. ==Theory== {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)}} The Planck units are direct measures of the SI units; [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] in ''kg'', [[w:Planck length |Planck length]] in ''m'', [[w:Planck time |Planck time]] in ''s'' ... and so they are analogues to the attributes listed in Table 2.. The SI Planck units have numerical values, however to derive a mathematical relation between these SI units we cannot use numerical values, this is because numerical values are simply dimensionless frequencies of the SI unit itself, 299792458 could refer to the speed of light 299792458m/s or equally to the number of apples in a container (299792458 apples), numbers such as 299792458 carry no unit-specific information, and so the units are treated as independent by default. This therefore requires that to the number 299792458 is added a descriptive (the unit), which could be m/s or apples. This inherent restriction can be resolved by assigning to each unit a geometrical object for which the geometry embeds the attribute (for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function time and so a descriptive unit ''s'' = seconds is not required). We may then combine these objects Lego-style to form more complex objects; from electrons to galaxies, while still retaining the underlying attributes (of mass M, wavelength L, frequency T ...). An apple has mass because its 'geometry' includes the geometrical object for mass. {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)}} ===Statistical analysis=== The statistical analysis has been updated and moved to; * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ 5k5yc1izabrdnxe6g8ss4x0ty8nwwqv 2 289273 2816672 2806610 2026-06-24T13:08:53Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Atoms are 4-polytopes */ discrete 2816672 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space R⁴ = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - June 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as a Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth orthogonal dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is translating through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as a [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]]. Space itself has a fourth orthogonal dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical spiral galaxy such as ours is a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our galaxy appear from our viewpoint to be distributed in a cloud of elliptical spirals occupying a flattened ellipsoid region of 3-dimensional space, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a spherical region of 4-dimensional space. The galaxy's actual shape is spherical, not a flattened ellipsoid, but it is rounder than round can be in our ordinary experience: it occupies a hyperspherical region of space. The concentric spirals of stars that we observe lie on concentric [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]s (4-dimensional spheres), not on concentric 2-ellipsoids (3-dimensional elliptical spirals). Our sun and solar system lies on one of those concentric 3-spheres. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, and elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. ...rotating illustration of the 4-ball galaxy showimg its spirals of star clouds on the surface of concentric 3-spheres...obtained by reverse sterographic projection from 3D images of the galaxy... The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital center point, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories relative to the galaxy's linear trajectory, as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements, the compound of a simple rotation and a linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. For all observers, the conjectured origin point of the universe corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space (the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers). The big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured separately, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. We live within such a 3-space, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our particular 3-sphere is one of the galaxy's concentric 3-spheres of spiral star-clouds. The solar system occupies a tiny patch of this filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction that is orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of rotating objects through Euclidean space by screw translation. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold that is such an evolving surface boundary is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a three-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, which is the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to 4-dimensional lumps of matter as plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their geometry or internal structure. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know nothing about its interior 4-ball. Every such moving 3-dimensional surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from atoms to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two orthogonal inertial motions. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> in all four dimensions concurrently, so they move diagonally through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c^\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math> in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> denote a rotation, <small><math>\mathrm{R}</math></small> a reflection, <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> a translation, and let <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math></small> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <small><math>\mathrm{RT}</math></small> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <small><math>\mathrm{QR}</math></small> is a rotary-reflection, <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is a screw-displacement, and <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r \le n)</math></small>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math></small>.<br> For <small><math>(n = 4)</math></small> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>, or a screw-displacement <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> [where the rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> is a simple rotation, but the <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is chiral like a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <small><math>\mathrm{QRT}</math></small>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> or a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>, because we can view any <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> as a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>. By the same principle, we can view any <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> or <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was first described by Einstein himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity ''c'', in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always ''c'', as measured by all observers in any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity ''c''. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity ''c''. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity ''c'' through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity ''c''. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, may be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity ''c'', in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity ''c'' relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is 2''c'' when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to ''c'', it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity ''c'' in Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" ''c'', although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity ''c'', but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant ''c'' is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant ''c'' is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as ''c'' by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity ''c''. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space. ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords. Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at ''c'' (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than ''c''. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which ''c'' cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for it to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c^\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a small number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a geometric object that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct group of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete set of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, leaving itself right-side-out again. Coxeter's laws of motion are a geometric counterpart to Newton's laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as simple geometric pictures, by anyone baffled by algebraic formulas. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. For example, they give us simple geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in four dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math></small>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>, or a screw-displacement <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> [where the rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> is a simple rotation, but the <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is chiral like a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <small><math>\mathrm{QRT}</math></small>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as simple geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>), reflection (<small><math>\mathrm{R}</math></small>) and translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) are just what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until you have four or more dimensions of space to rotate in. ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it really is important that I do this here... == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity ''c''== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion apply to all objects with mass in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <small><math>\mathrm{R}^4</math></small>, which may be termed a double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}^2</math></small>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections, without any rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> or simple translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> is a double reflection <small><math>\mathrm{R^2}</math></small>, so a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> or <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> is also an <small><math>\mathrm{R^4}</math></small>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <small><math>\mathrm{R^4}</math></small>. A translation <small><math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math></small> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math></small> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math></small> which is both at once. A double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four or more non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>. A double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> is the opposite of a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math></small>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>. The product of the two translations in a <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter. ...lensing of double translations <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet... == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q<sup>2</sup>) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q<sup>2</sup>) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (their relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). ...this is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point: ...These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q<sup>2</sup>) resembles a (QT), since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period that it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T). All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be. ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> and <small><math>\mathbb{R^3}</math></small>, in contrast to the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <small><math>\mathbb{R^3}</math></small>, spherical space <small><math>S^3</math></small> and Euclidean space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>. Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity ''c''), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> rotation component (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>), breaking its stationary <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. The Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> rotation component (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a wide screw translation (<small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <small><math>SO(4)</math></small>) breaks to ... <small><math>S^3</math></small>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <small><math>H^3</math></small>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <small><math>SO(4)</math></small>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R<sup>3</sup>. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S<sup>3</sup>, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S<sup>3</sup>, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C<sub>∞</sub> symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S<sup>3</sup>.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity ''c'', with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed us that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> breaks to ... <small><math>S^3</math></small>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <small><math>H^3</math></small> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|The long radius (center to vertex) of the 24-cell is equal to its edge length; thus its long diameter (vertex to opposite vertex) is 2 edge lengths. Only a few uniform polytopes have this property, including the four-dimensional 24-cell and [[W:Tesseract#Radial equilateral symmetry|tesseract]], the three-dimensional [[W:Cuboctahedron#Radial equilateral symmetry|cuboctahedron]], and the two-dimensional [[W:Hexagon#Regular hexagon|hexagon]]. (The cuboctahedron is the equatorial cross section of the 24-cell, and the hexagon is the equatorial cross section of the cuboctahedron.) '''Radially equilateral''' polytopes are those which can be constructed, with their long radii, from equilateral triangles which meet at the center of the polytope, each contributing two radii and an edge.|name=radially equilateral|group=}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>) {{indent|5}}(–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>){{spaces|3}}(–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90<sup>o</sup> bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60<sup>o</sup> bend, or as a straight line with one 60<sup>o</sup> bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V<sub>0</sub> in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P<sub>0</sub>, the first vertex reached V<sub>1</sub> is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P<sub>1</sub>. P<sub>1</sub> is inclined to P<sub>0</sub> at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>1</sub> lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V<sub>2</sub> is 120 degrees beyond V<sub>1</sub> along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P<sub>2</sub> that is Clifford parallel to P<sub>0</sub>.{{Efn|P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V<sub>1</sub> lies in both intersecting planes P<sub>1</sub> and P<sub>2</sub>, as V<sub>0</sub> lies in both P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>1</sub>. But P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V<sub>3</sub> is 120 degrees beyond V<sub>2</sub> along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P<sub>3</sub> that is Clifford parallel to P<sub>1</sub>. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V<sub>0</sub> to V<sub>3</sub> is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹<sub>4</sub>.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} 69mbngtqxg83yasi9gse65wbpf50n42 2816682 2816672 2026-06-24T13:29:37Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation */ 2816682 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space R⁴ = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - June 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as a Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth orthogonal dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is translating through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as a [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]]. Space itself has a fourth orthogonal dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical spiral galaxy such as ours is a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our galaxy appear from our viewpoint to be distributed in a cloud of elliptical spirals occupying a flattened ellipsoid region of 3-dimensional space, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a spherical region of 4-dimensional space. The galaxy's actual shape is spherical, not a flattened ellipsoid, but it is rounder than round can be in our ordinary experience: it occupies a hyperspherical region of space. The concentric spirals of stars that we observe lie on concentric [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]s (4-dimensional spheres), not on concentric 2-ellipsoids (3-dimensional elliptical spirals). Our sun and solar system lies on one of those concentric 3-spheres. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, and elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. ...rotating illustration of the 4-ball galaxy showimg its spirals of star clouds on the surface of concentric 3-spheres...obtained by reverse sterographic projection from 3D images of the galaxy... The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital center point, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories relative to the galaxy's linear trajectory, as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements, the compound of a simple rotation and a linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. For all observers, the conjectured origin point of the universe corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space (the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers). The big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured separately, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. We live within such a 3-space, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our particular 3-sphere is one of the galaxy's concentric 3-spheres of spiral star-clouds. The solar system occupies a tiny patch of this filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction that is orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of rotating objects through Euclidean space by screw translation. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold that is such an evolving surface boundary is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a three-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, which is the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to 4-dimensional lumps of matter as plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their geometry or internal structure. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know nothing about its interior 4-ball. Every such moving 3-dimensional surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from atoms to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two orthogonal inertial motions. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> in all four dimensions concurrently, so they move diagonally through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c^\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math> in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> denote a rotation, <small><math>\mathrm{R}</math></small> a reflection, <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> a translation, and let <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math></small> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <small><math>\mathrm{RT}</math></small> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <small><math>\mathrm{QR}</math></small> is a rotary-reflection, <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is a screw-displacement, and <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r \le n)</math></small>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math></small>.<br> For <small><math>(n = 4)</math></small> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>, or a screw-displacement <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> [where the rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> is a simple rotation, but the <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is chiral like a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <small><math>\mathrm{QRT}</math></small>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> or a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>, because we can view any <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> as a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>. By the same principle, we can view any <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> or <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was first described by Einstein himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity ''c'', in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always ''c'', as measured by all observers in any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity ''c''. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity ''c''. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity ''c'' through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity ''c''. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, may be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity ''c'', in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity ''c'' relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is 2''c'' when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to ''c'', it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity ''c'' in Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" ''c'', although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity ''c'', but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant ''c'' is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant ''c'' is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as ''c'' by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity ''c''. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space. ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords. Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at ''c'' (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than ''c''. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which ''c'' cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for it to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c^\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a small number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a geometric object that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct group of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete set of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, leaving itself right-side-out again. Coxeter's laws of motion are a geometric counterpart to Newton's laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as simple geometric pictures, by anyone baffled by algebraic formulas. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. For example, they give us simple geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in four dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math></small>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>, or a screw-displacement <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> [where the rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> is a simple rotation, but the <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is chiral like a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <small><math>\mathrm{QRT}</math></small>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as simple geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>), reflection (<small><math>\mathrm{R}</math></small>) and translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) are just what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until you have four or more dimensions of space to rotate in. ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it really is important that I do this here... == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity ''c''== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion apply to all objects with mass in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <small><math>\mathrm{R}^4</math></small>, which may be termed a double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}^2</math></small>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections, without any rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> or simple translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> is a double reflection <small><math>\mathrm{R^2}</math></small>, so a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> or <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> is also an <small><math>\mathrm{R^4}</math></small>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <small><math>\mathrm{R^4}</math></small>. A translation <small><math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math></small> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math></small> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math></small> which is both at once. A double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four or more non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>. A double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> is the opposite of a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math></small>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>. The product of the two translations in a <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter. ...lensing of double translations <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet... == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q<sup>2</sup>) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q<sup>2</sup>) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (their relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). ...this is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point: ...These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q<sup>2</sup>) resembles a (QT), since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period that it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T). All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be. ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> and <small><math>\mathbb{R^3}</math></small>, in contrast to the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <small><math>\mathbb{R^3}</math></small>, spherical space <small><math>S^3</math></small> and Euclidean space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>. Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity ''c''), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> rotation component (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>), breaking its stationary <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. The Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> rotation component (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a wide screw translation (<small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <small><math>SO(4)</math></small>) breaks to ... <small><math>S^3</math></small>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <small><math>H^3</math></small>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <small><math>SO(4)</math></small>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R<sup>3</sup>. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S<sup>3</sup>, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S<sup>3</sup>, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C<sub>∞</sub> symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S<sup>3</sup>.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity ''c'', with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed us that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> breaks to ... <small><math>S^3</math></small>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <small><math>H^3</math></small> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|The long radius (center to vertex) of the 24-cell is equal to its edge length; thus its long diameter (vertex to opposite vertex) is 2 edge lengths. Only a few uniform polytopes have this property, including the four-dimensional 24-cell and [[W:Tesseract#Radial equilateral symmetry|tesseract]], the three-dimensional [[W:Cuboctahedron#Radial equilateral symmetry|cuboctahedron]], and the two-dimensional [[W:Hexagon#Regular hexagon|hexagon]]. (The cuboctahedron is the equatorial cross section of the 24-cell, and the hexagon is the equatorial cross section of the cuboctahedron.) '''Radially equilateral''' polytopes are those which can be constructed, with their long radii, from equilateral triangles which meet at the center of the polytope, each contributing two radii and an edge.|name=radially equilateral|group=}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>) {{indent|5}}(–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>){{spaces|3}}(–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90<sup>o</sup> bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60<sup>o</sup> bend, or as a straight line with one 60<sup>o</sup> bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V<sub>0</sub> in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P<sub>0</sub>, the first vertex reached V<sub>1</sub> is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P<sub>1</sub>. P<sub>1</sub> is inclined to P<sub>0</sub> at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>1</sub> lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V<sub>2</sub> is 120 degrees beyond V<sub>1</sub> along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P<sub>2</sub> that is Clifford parallel to P<sub>0</sub>.{{Efn|P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V<sub>1</sub> lies in both intersecting planes P<sub>1</sub> and P<sub>2</sub>, as V<sub>0</sub> lies in both P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>1</sub>. But P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V<sub>3</sub> is 120 degrees beyond V<sub>2</sub> along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P<sub>3</sub> that is Clifford parallel to P<sub>1</sub>. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V<sub>0</sub> to V<sub>3</sub> is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹<sub>4</sub>.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} 24cko3fvz0qmqscjsrihr4lfvnm78jv 2816685 2816682 2026-06-24T13:30:20Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation */ 2816685 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real Euclidean four-dimensional space R⁴ = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - June 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as a Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth orthogonal dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three; atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]; the sun is a 4-ball that is round in four dimensions; everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space; and our entire 3-space manifold is translating through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as a [[w:Four-dimensional_space|Euclidean space of four orthogonal spatial dimensions]]. Space itself has a fourth orthogonal dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move through Euclidean 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical spiral galaxy such as ours is a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our galaxy appear from our viewpoint to be distributed in a cloud of elliptical spirals occupying a flattened ellipsoid region of 3-dimensional space, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a spherical region of 4-dimensional space. The galaxy's actual shape is spherical, not a flattened ellipsoid, but it is rounder than round can be in our ordinary experience: it occupies a hyperspherical region of space. The concentric spirals of stars that we observe lie on concentric [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]s (4-dimensional spheres), not on concentric 2-ellipsoids (3-dimensional elliptical spirals). Our sun and solar system lies on one of those concentric 3-spheres. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, and elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. ...rotating illustration of the 4-ball galaxy showimg its spirals of star clouds on the surface of concentric 3-spheres...obtained by reverse sterographic projection from 3D images of the galaxy... The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital center point, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories relative to the galaxy's linear trajectory, as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the cylinder; their trajectories are screw-displacements, the compound of a simple rotation and a linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a 3-sphere expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. For all observers, the conjectured origin point of the universe corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space (the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers). The big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured separately, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. The enclosing surface of a spherical region of 4-space is itself a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. We live within such a 3-space, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our particular 3-sphere is one of the galaxy's concentric 3-spheres of spiral star-clouds. The solar system occupies a tiny patch of this filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our entire 3-sphere manifold, as a 3-spherical shell within the moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction that is orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the galaxy's translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of rotating objects through Euclidean space by screw translation. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold that is such an evolving surface boundary is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a three-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, which is the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to 4-dimensional lumps of matter as plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their geometry or internal structure. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know nothing about its interior 4-ball. Every such moving 3-dimensional surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. Its current location in 4-space corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of its inertial reference frame. Its direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from atoms to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, two orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object moves relative to universal 4-coordinate space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw translation trajectory that is the compound of its two orthogonal inertial motions. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in motion at velocity <math>c</math> in all four dimensions concurrently, so they move diagonally through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c^\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of our mostly-empty 4-ball galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math> in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper space. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> denote a rotation, <small><math>\mathrm{R}</math></small> a reflection, <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> a translation, and let <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math></small> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <small><math>\mathrm{RT}</math></small> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <small><math>\mathrm{QR}</math></small> is a rotary-reflection, <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is a screw-displacement, and <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r \le n)</math></small>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math></small>.<br> For <small><math>(n = 4)</math></small> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>, or a screw-displacement <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> [where the rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> is a simple rotation, but the <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is chiral like a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <small><math>\mathrm{QRT}</math></small>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> or a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>, because we can view any <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> as a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>. By the same principle, we can view any <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> or <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, stationary atoms exhibit the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional "space" because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign to the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a flat Euclidean 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was first described by Einstein himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity ''c'', in some 4-space direction. This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always ''c'', as measured by all observers in any inertial reference frame. This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source. But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity ''c''. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity ''c''. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity ''c'' through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity ''c''. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your proper space, which again, may be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and proper space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity ''c'', in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity ''c'' relative to universal 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is 2''c'' when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to ''c'', it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in a 3-space of Minkowski spacetime. Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity ''c'' in Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" ''c'', although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity ''c'', but in at least slightly different directions. In Einstein's relativity, the invariant ''c'' is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant ''c'' is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as ''c'' by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is moving through 4-space at velocity ''c''. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same predictions about how observers in different reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space, and we shall see that they also agree on the predictions of general relativity. They both describe the same geometric relations of space and time, but they describe that geometry as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Minkowski spacetime versus Euclidean 4-space. ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity <math>c</math> through space and proper time ...cite Yamashita{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} on the equivalence of special relativity and Euclidean 4-space relativity ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords. Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at ''c'' (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than ''c''. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which ''c'' cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for it to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c^\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate linearly along the edge of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a small number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a geometric object that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct group of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete set of local self-reflections. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which touch (intersect each other). When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, leaving itself right-side-out again. Coxeter's laws of motion are a geometric counterpart to Newton's laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as simple geometric pictures, by anyone baffled by algebraic formulas. But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. For example, they give us simple geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in four dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math></small><br> where <small><math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math></small>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>, or a screw-displacement <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> [where the rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> is a simple rotation, but the <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> is chiral like a <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <small><math>\mathrm{QRT}</math></small>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as simple geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>), reflection (<small><math>\mathrm{R}</math></small>) and translation (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) are just what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math></small>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until you have four or more dimensions of space to rotate in. ...to readers who have not studied Coxeter (almost all readers including TAC), the blockquote above is "just math", not visualizable geometry...but I could describe Coxeter's congruent transformations in 4-space here geometrically: I could say clearly what they mean in spatial terms, in language anyone can understand, because they don't require any math to be understood; the "math" here is really just simple pictures (reflections and rotations); even double rotations can be visualized by dimensional analogy, as compounds of simple rotations...since even most physicists are unacquainted with Coxeter geometry, it really is important that I do this here... == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity ''c''== Coxeter's geometric laws of motion apply to all objects with mass in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <small><math>\mathrm{R}^4</math></small>, which may be termed a double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}^2</math></small>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections, without any rotation component <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> or simple translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> is a double reflection <small><math>\mathrm{R^2}</math></small>, so a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> or <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small> is also an <small><math>\mathrm{R^4}</math></small>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <small><math>\mathrm{R^4}</math></small>. A translation <small><math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math></small> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math></small> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math></small> which is both at once. A double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four or more non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>. A double translation <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> is the opposite of a double rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math></small>, which is stationary but rotates twice as fast as the simple rotation <small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small> in a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>. The product of the two translations in a <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double-the-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <small><math>\mathrm{T^2}</math></small> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter. ...lensing of double translations <small><math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math></small> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet... == The Kepler problem is framed in Euclidean 4-space == The [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] is named for [[W:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], arguably the greatest geometer since the ancients up to [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]], who proposed [[W:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] which solved the problem of the orbits of the planets, and investigated the types of forces that would result in orbits obeying those laws. Those forces were later identified by [[W:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] in his[[W:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| Principia]], where he proves what today might be called the "inverse Kepler problem": the orbit characteristics require the force to depend on the inverse square of the distance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> The inverse square law behind the Kepler problem is the [[W:Central force|central force]] law which governs not only [[W:Newtonian gravity|Newtonian gravity]] and celestial orbits, but also the motion of two charged particles in [[W:Coulomb’s law|Coulomb’s law]] of [[W:Electrostatics|electrostatics]]; it applies to attractive or repulsive forces. Problems in which two bodies interact by a central force that varies as the [[W:Inverse square law|inverse square]] of the distance between them are called Kepler problems. Thus the [[W:Hydrogen atom|hydrogen atom]] is a Kepler problem, since it comprises two charged particles interacting by Coulomb's law, another inverse-square central force. Using classical mechanics, the solution to a Kepler problem can be expressed as a [[W:Kepler orbit|Kepler orbit]] using six kinematical variables or [[W:Orbital elements|orbital elements]]. The solution conserves an orbital element called the [[W:Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector|Laplace–Runge–Lenz (LRL) vector]], a [[W:Constant of motion|constant of motion]], meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit. The LRL vector was essential in the first quantum mechanical derivation of the [[W:Atomic emission spectrum|spectrum]] of the hydrogen atom, but this approach has rarely been used since the development of the [[W:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]]. The conservation of the LRL vector corresponds to the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetry, by Nother's theorem. The LRL vector lies orthogonal to both the orbital plane and the angular momentum vector of the Kepler orbit; we observe that it lies in a fourth orthogonal dimension. Fock in 1935<ref>V. Fock, Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik. 98 (3-4) (1935), 145–154.</ref> and Moser in 1970<ref>J. Moser, Regularization of Kepler’s problem and the averaging method on a manifold, Commun. Pure Appl. 23 (1970), 609–636</ref> observed that the Kepler problem is mathematically equivalent to non-affine geodesic motion (a particle moving freely) on the surface of a 3-sphere, so that the whole problem is symmetric under certain rotations of the four-dimensional space. This higher-dimensional symmetry results in two well-known properties of the Kepler problem: the momentum vector always moves in a perfect circle and, for a given total energy, all such velocity circles intersect each other in the same two points. ... Relativity establishes that an orbit in space is viewed in a different way in each distinct inertial reference frame. Depending on the choice of reference frame, the same Kepler system may be seen to be performing any one of a sequence of relativistically equivalent rotations in 4-space, on a continuum from an isoclinic rotation (Q<sup>2</sup>) in the orbit's proper reference frame, to a screw transfer (QT) with a simple rotation component (Q) and a translation component (T) at velocity <math>c</math>, in the universal reference frame of 4-coordinate space wherein every object is seen to be translating at velocity <math>c</math>. In reference frames between these two limit cases, the orbit is seen to be performing a double rotation (Q<sup>2</sup>) at two unequal, completely orthogonal angular rates of rotation: an elliptical double rotation. These include the reference frames of most typical observers, who are moving slowly relative to the observed orbital system's reference frame (their relative motion is a small fraction of the speed of light). ...this is probably misplaced here and should not interrupt the discussion at this point: ...These typical observations agree closely with the predictions of special relativity, because the non-isoclinic elliptical (Q<sup>2</sup>) resembles a (QT), since one of its two completely orthogonal rotations (Q) has such a long period that it is almost indistinguishable from a straight translation (T). All orbits in 4-space are isoclinic in their own reference frame. Orbiting objects in their own proper Kepler systems follow circular geodesic isoclines through 4-space. Orbits in 4-space are perfectly circular in their own reference frame, as Copernicus assumed the orbits of planets to be. It is the orbit's path through the 3-space of its elliptic hyperplane that is an ellipse, as Kepler found it to be. ...cite Jesper Goransson's very concise paper The geodesic circle that an orbiting object follows through 4-space in the proper reference frame of its own Kepler system is not a simple great circle which turns in two orthogonal dimensions. It is a helical great circle that turns in four orthogonal dimensions at once.{{Efn|Geodesic orbits in 4-space are not simple 2-dimensional great circles; they are helical 4-dimensional great circles that curve in all four dimensions at once. Their circular trajectories are helixes which we call ''isoclines'', since they are the paths taken by points on a rigid object undergoing isoclinic rotation.}} Such circles lie outside our physical experience, since our local space has only three orthogonal dimensions. Nonetheless we can visualize them in imagination, because their helical, circular shape is perfectly well defined by the kinematical variables of the Kepler orbit. The real physical correlates of abstract orthogonal planes and rotation angles are already familiar to us viscerally in our body-language of physical experience, since we are endowed biologically with highly evolved visual signal processing engines. These enable us to see and understand spatial relations and motions, including rotations, without even thinking about angles and orthogonal planes. This physical endowment is an inborn capacity for dimensional analogy which our biologic evolution has provided. All our instinctive spatial reasoning is by dimensional analogy from flat 2-dimensional retinal images to 3-dimensional scenes, using our powerful inborn visualization capacities of reverse stereographic projection and pattern recognition. We humans are thus very well equipped with everything we need to see in four-dimensional space, except experience. ... Recently Anco and Moghadam found that through Noether’s theorem in reverse, the LRL vector gives rise to a corresponding infinitesimal dynamical symmetry on the kinematical variables, which they show to be the semi-direct product of <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> and <small><math>\mathbb{R^3}</math></small>, in contrast to the <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> symmetry group generated by the LRL symmetries and the rotations.{{Sfn|Anco|Moghadam|2026|ps=; The physically relevant part of the LRL vector is its direction ... since its magnitude is just a function of energy and angular momentum.}} This remarkable symmetry breaking is expressive of the ''dimensional relativity'' between ordinary 3-space <small><math>\mathbb{R^3}</math></small>, spherical space <small><math>S^3</math></small> and Euclidean space <small><math>\mathbb{R^4}</math></small>. Consider a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit: for example, a hydrogen atom moving freely in space in an orbit around the sun. It is a ''double'' Kepler problem: an electrostatic Kepler problem within itself, and a gravitational Kepler problem in its environment. The ''single'' electrostatic Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom moving freely in space beyond any gravitational influence is a problem in special relativity. In our Euclidean 4-space model, this atom viewed as stationary in its own proper reference frame exhibits an <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotation symmetry corresponding to an isoclinic double rotation (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>). The fourth dimension in this reference frame is the atom's proper time vector; it has constant velocity <math>c</math> and constant direction. From the point of view of our universal 4-coordinate space (which cannot be the proper inertial reference frame of any physical observer, all of whom are moving relative to it at velocity ''c''), the entire Kepler system (the atom) is translating through 4-space via a screw translation (<small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>) at constant velocity <math>c</math>. From this viewpoint the atom has only a simple <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> rotation component (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>), breaking its stationary <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> isoclinic rotation symmetry (<small><math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math></small>). Because each discrete part of the rotating atom moves along a helical trajectory through 4-space, the atom is in orbit around a barycentric axis (like a star in a galaxy), but only in a tiny orbit within its own radius, which is its inertial domain of rotation. The straight 4-dimensional cylinder it progresses along at velocity <math>c</math> is very narrow: only the diameter of the rotating atom itself. The gravitational Kepler problem of a hydrogen atom in a Kepler orbit around the sun is a problem in general relativity. In our 4-space model, this atom viewed in its own proper reference frame exhibits the same <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> rotation symmetry as it did in the electrostatic Kepler problem where the atom was translating linearly through space. The Kepler system in this case is not just the atom; it is the entire solar system. The LRL vector of this Kepler system is the proper time vector of the atom's inertial reference frame; once again it has constant velocity ''and constant direction''. Although the momentum vector moves in a perfect circle as the atom orbits the sun, the 4-space LRL vector does not move at all: it is a constant of motion, of linear motion (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) of the Kepler system (the entire solar system in this case) in a constant 4-space direction, the proper time direction of the system. The direction of the system's proper time vector would vary under some kinds of acceleration of the atom, but it is constant under this kind of orbital acceleration. It continues to point in the same direction, like a 4-space compass needle, as the atom winds its way along its spiral path around the axis of the sun's straight-line translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. This compass needle always points in the direction the sun is moving, not the direction the atom is moving at any instant. ...Its Kepler orbit around the sun is its <small><math>SO(3)</math></small> rotation component (<small><math>\mathrm{Q}</math></small>). Although the atom is moving on a geodesic circle in the second problem, by the [[equivalence principle]] the difference in the state of the atomic systems in these two problems cannot be observed by examining the atoms alone. Even from another inertial reference frame, where the atom in the second problem is seen to be translating through 4-space via a wide screw translation (<small><math>\mathrm{QT}</math></small>) around the sun's axis of motion, there is still no difference between the two problems which can be detected by examining only the atoms within their own proper reference frames (even over time), because the LRL vector (<small><math>\mathrm{T}</math></small>) is a constant of motion of the entire system in both cases. ...Anco and Maghadam found that <small><math>SO(4)</math></small>) breaks to ... <small><math>S^3</math></small>)... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <small><math>H^3</math></small>) ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). ... Finally we consider a third problem in which a hydrogen atom enters the solar system as a comet, loops around the sun and exits the solar system again. This atom... ... As Hamilton found when he discovered the quaternions, we see that it is necessary to admit a fourth dimension to the system in order to properly model the problem: in Hamilton's case the general problem of ..., and in our case the Kepler problem. These are instances of the same problem in 4-dimensional Euclidean geometry, and indeed a solution to the Kepler problem in quaternions (the four Cartesian coordinates of Euclidean 4-space) is a solution to it in our model of the 4-coordinate Euclidean cosmos. == Distribution of stars in our galaxy == The stars in our own galaxy appear to us to be a rotating spiral cluster in 3-dimensional space. By assuming that light from them reaches us on straight lines through space, by assuming that we can measure their distance from us by its red shift, and by assuming that they are distributed in three dimensions of space, we have plotted their locations in 3-space. If we abandon the last of those three assumptions, we can just as easily reinterpret that dataset to plot their distribution around us in 4-dimensional space, and see how they actually lie. When we perform this experiment on the data for the stars in our galaxy, do we indeed find that they are distributed non-uniformly in various concentric spirals, but the spirals lie on the surface of various 3-spheres, rather than in elliptical orbits as we saw them in 3-space? That would be an expected consequence of the special rotational symmetry group of 4-space <small><math>SO(4)</math></small>, in which circular (isoclinic) orbits are the geodesics (shortest rotational paths) rather than elliptical (non-equi-angled double rotation) orbits. ...have to perform this experiment somehow, at least as a conclusive thought experiment, before I publish this paper... == Rotations == The [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotations]] of the convex [[W:regular 4-polytope|regular 4-polytope]]s are usually described as discrete rotations of a rigid object. For example, the rigid [[24-cell]] can rotate in a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|hexagonal]] (6-vertex) central [[24-cell#Planes of rotation|plane of rotation]]. A 4-dimensional [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]] (as distinct from a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] like the ones that occur in 3-dimensional space) is a ''diagonal'' rotation in multiple [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] [[24-cell#Geodesics|central planes]] of rotation at once. It is diagonal because it is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]]: in addition to rotating in parallel (like wheels), the multiple planes of rotation also tilt sideways in the completely orthogonal plane of rotation (like coins flipping) into each other's planes. Consequently, the path taken by each vertex is a [[24-cell#Helical hexagrams and their isoclines|twisted helical circle]], rather than the ordinary flat great circle a vertex follows in a simple rotation. In a rigid 4-polytope rotating isoclinically, ''all'' the vertices lie in one of the parallel planes of rotation, so all the vertices move in parallel along Clifford parallel twisting circular paths. [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel planes]] are not parallel in the normal sense of parallel planes in three dimensions; the vertices are all moving in different directions around the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. In one complete 360° isoclinic revolution, a rigid 4-polytope turns itself inside out. This is sufficiently different from the simple rotations of rigid bodies in our 3-dimensional experience that a [[24-cell#Rotations|detailed description]] enabling the reader to properly visualize its counter-intuitive consequences runs to many pages and illustrations, with many accompanying pages of explanatory notes on surprising phenomena that arise in 4-dimensional space: [[24-cell#Great squares|completely orthogonal planes]], [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallelism]]{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} and [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]], [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic geodesic paths]], and [[24-cell#Double rotations|chiral (mirror image) pairs of rotations]], among other complexities. Moreover, the characteristic rotations of the various regular 4-polytopes are all different; each is a unique surprise. [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|The 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]] have different numbers of vertices (5, 8, 16, 24, 120 and 600 respectively) and those with fewer vertices occur inscribed in those with more vertices (with one exception), with the result that the more complex 4-polytopes subsume the kinds of rotations characteristic of their less complex predecessors, as well as each having a characteristic kind of rotation not found in their predecessors. None of these symmetries is to be found in 3-dimensional space, although their simpler 3-dimensional analogues are all present there. [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|Four dimensional Euclidean space]] is more complicated (and more interesting) than three dimensional space because there is more room in it, in which unprecedented things can happen. It subsumes 3-dimensional space, with all of the symmetries we are accustomed to, and adds astonishing new surprises. These are hard for us to visualize, because the only way we can experience them is in our imagination; we have no body of sensory experience in 4-dimensional space to draw upon, other than our evolution in time. For that reason (our difficulty in visualizing them), descriptions of isoclinic rotations usually begin and end with rigid rotations: [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|for example]], all 24 vertices of a single rigid 24-cell rotating in unison, with 6 vertices evenly spaced around each of 4 Clifford parallel twisted circles.{{Efn|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} But that is only the simplest case, which is easiest for us to understand. Compound and [[W:Kinematics|kinematic]] 24-cells (with moving parts) are even more interesting (and more complicated) than the rotation of a single rigid 24-cell. To begin with, when we examine the individual parts of a single rigid 24-cell that are moving in an isoclinic rotation, such as the orbits of individual vertices, we can imagine a case where fewer than 24 point-objects are orbiting on those twisted circular paths at once. [[24-cell#Reflections|For example]], if we imagine just 8 point-objects, evenly spaced around the 24-cell at [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|the 8 vertices that lie on the 4 coordinate axes]], and rotate them isoclinically along exactly the same orbits they would take in the above-mentioned rotation of a rigid 24-cell, then in the course of a single 360° rotation the 8 point-objects will trace out the whole 24-cell, with just one point-object reaching each of the 24 vertex positions just once, and no point-object colliding with (or even crossing the path of) any other at any time. This is an example of a discrete Hopf fibration. But it is still an example of a rigid object in a discrete isoclinic rotation: a rigid 8-vertex object (called the 4-[[W:orthoplex|orthoplex]] or [[16-cell]]) performing one half of the characteristic rotation of the 24-cell. We can also imagine ''combining'' distinct isoclinic rotations. What happens when multiple point-objects are orbiting at once, but do ''not'' all follow the Clifford parallel paths characteristic of the ''same'' distinct rigid rotation? What happens when we combine orbits from distinct rotations characteristic of different 4-polytopes, for example when different rigid 4-polytopes are concentric and rotating simultaneously in their characteristic ways? What kinds of such hybrid rotations are possible in the same 3-sphere shell without collisions? In adjacent concentric shells without asymmetric imbalance? What sort of [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematic polytopes]] do they trace out, and how do their [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|component parts]] relate to each other as they move? Is there (sometimes) some kind of mutual stability amid their lack of combined rigidity? Visualizing isoclinic rotations (rigid and otherwise) allows us to explore such questions of [[W:kinematics|kinematics]], and where dynamic stabilities arise, of [[wikipedia:kinetics (physics)|kinetics]]. In four dimensions, we discover that space has more room in it than we have experienced, which permits previously unimagined motions. Even 3-space is more commodious than we thought; when it is curved and lies embedded in a higher-dimensional space, it permits previously impossible symmetric packings. Sadoc studied double-twisted 3-dimensional molecules, and imagined them embedded in 4-dimensional space as the Hopf fibrations of regular 4-polytopes. He found that these molecules would close-pack on the 3-sphere perfectly without exhibiting any torsion, although their packing in ordinary flat 3-space is imperfect, "frustrated" by their twisted geometry. <blockquote>The frustration, which arises when the molecular orientation is transported along the two [spiral] AB paths of figure 1 [double twist helix], is imposed by the very topological nature of the Euclidean space R<sup>3</sup>. It would not occur if the molecules were embedded in the non-Euclidean space of the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] S<sup>3</sup>, or hypersphere. This space with a homogeneous positive curvature can indeed be described by equidistant and uniformly twisted fibers, along which the molecules can be aligned without any conflict between compactness and [[W:torsion of a curve|torsion]].... The fibres of this [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]] are great circles of S<sup>3</sup>, the whole family of which is also called the [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} Two of these fibers are C<sub>∞</sub> symmetry axes for the whole fibration; each fibre makes one turn around each axis and regularly rotates when moving from one axis to another.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} These fibers build a double twist configuration while staying parallel, i.e. without any frustration, in the whole volume of S<sup>3</sup>.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} They can therefore be used as models to study the condensation of long molecules in the presence of a double twist constraint.{{Sfn|Sadoc & Charvolin|2009|loc=§1.2 The curved space approach|ps=; studies the helical orientation of molecules in crystal structures and their imperfect packings ("frustrations") in 3-dimensional space.}}</blockquote> Of course we do not find molecules condensing to close-pack the 3-sphere in our experience, and Sadoc does not say that we do. We find 3-spheres in the atomic realm (if atoms are 4-polytopes), and in the cosmic realm (as the surface boundaries of stars, and the concentric surfaces of galaxies). But in between, in the realm of ordinary experience which includes the molecular realm, ourselves and all the objects we can materially handle or observe up close including the planets, we are confined together by gravity as inertia within a curved 3-dimensional space that is no more than one atom thick in the fourth spatial dimension. That is why in the molecular realm we find only objects that occupy 3-spaces which, though infinitesimally curved in the fourth dimension, are tiny patches on whole 3-spheres of galactic size. So Sadoc's exercise is a thought experiment, like Einstein's gedankenexperiments about railroad embankments and trains moving at nearly the speed of light. It is no less illuminating, despite the symmetry it reveals not having a realization as an actual 3-sphere of actual molecules. And might not something very like it have an actual realization in the atomic realm? We know that atoms have their own complex internal structure, which we are unable to model geometrically in ordinary 3-dimensional space. Suppose such a model is impossible because an atom is actually a 4-polytope occupying a tiny spherical region of 4-dimensional space, and so we only find its constituent particles in close-packed helical orbits on the 3-sphere, in the manner of Sadoc's imaginary twisted molecules, but as real 4-dimensional helices of atomic scale. We would expect to find the atomic orbit of a fundamental particle in some discrete Hopf fibration characteristic of a symmetry group, that is, on the maximally symmetric isoclines of a discrete isoclinic rotation characteristic of some regular 4-polytope and the particle. == A theory of the Euclidean atom == <blockquote>Because quantum physics could be tested without being understood, it allowed humans to see how the universe worked without knowing why.<ref>Sebastian Junger, In My Time of Dying</ref></blockquote> ... == Light and Mass are Reflection and Rotation == The phenomena of light and mass are expressions of reflection symmetries and rotation symmetries, respectively. ... Atoms are 4-polytopes, elementary objects with SO(4) rotational symmetry. Light is .... Motion in space is the propagation of the elementary objects of light and matter in Coxeter congruent transformations by kaleidoscopic self-reflections, like the motion of self-reproducing cellular automata in [[Conway's Game of Life|Conway's game of life]]. ... Light is discrete reflections. Mass is discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. === Atoms are 4-polytopes === ... == Relativity in real space of four or more orthogonal dimensions == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions. General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four or more orthogonal dimensions, e.g. in Euclidean 4-space <math>R^4</math>, spherical 4-space <math>S^4</math>, and any orthogonal 4-manifold. Light is a consequence of symmetry group reflections at quantum scale. Gravity and the other fundamental forces are consequences of rotations, which are consequences of quantum reflections. Light is discrete reflections. Gravity and all forces are discrete rotations. Both are group actions, expressions of intrinsic symmetries. That is all of physics. Every observer may properly see themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center. The curvature of these spheres is a function of the rate at which causality evolves, and can be measured by the observer as the speed of light. === Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions === ...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here... Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in three spatial dimensions. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and those differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, successive Euclidean spaces are dimensionally analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. === General relativity is Galilean relativity in a general space of four orthogonal dimensions === ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity entire, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the degree of dimensional analogy of which they are capable, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper perspective. We see that every observer may properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an ''n''-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity ''c'', with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed us that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a sense related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we now observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us only by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure them, not a finding of how they are actually distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw displacements), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw displacement has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal of that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <small><math>SO(4)</math></small> breaks to ... <small><math>S^3</math></small>... if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to ... <small><math>H^3</math></small> ... Minkowski spacetime if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Because the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space, Euclidean 4-space is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the truer model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position of centrality as our exclusive conception of our place in space. ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others. The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? ''What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?'' We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined motions and objects. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. A boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's and Coxeter's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover in imagination and then explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. This project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter showed us that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether showed us all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|The long radius (center to vertex) of the 24-cell is equal to its edge length; thus its long diameter (vertex to opposite vertex) is 2 edge lengths. Only a few uniform polytopes have this property, including the four-dimensional 24-cell and [[W:Tesseract#Radial equilateral symmetry|tesseract]], the three-dimensional [[W:Cuboctahedron#Radial equilateral symmetry|cuboctahedron]], and the two-dimensional [[W:Hexagon#Regular hexagon|hexagon]]. (The cuboctahedron is the equatorial cross section of the 24-cell, and the hexagon is the equatorial cross section of the cuboctahedron.) '''Radially equilateral''' polytopes are those which can be constructed, with their long radii, from equilateral triangles which meet at the center of the polytope, each contributing two radii and an edge.|name=radially equilateral|group=}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>) {{indent|5}}(–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>){{spaces|3}}(–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,–<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>,{{spaces|2}}<small>{{sfrac|1|2}}</small>) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90<sup>o</sup> bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60<sup>o</sup> bend, or as a straight line with one 60<sup>o</sup> bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V<sub>0</sub> in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P<sub>0</sub>, the first vertex reached V<sub>1</sub> is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P<sub>1</sub>. P<sub>1</sub> is inclined to P<sub>0</sub> at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>1</sub> lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V<sub>2</sub> is 120 degrees beyond V<sub>1</sub> along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P<sub>2</sub> that is Clifford parallel to P<sub>0</sub>.{{Efn|P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V<sub>0</sub> and V<sub>2</sub> are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V<sub>1</sub> lies in both intersecting planes P<sub>1</sub> and P<sub>2</sub>, as V<sub>0</sub> lies in both P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>1</sub>. But P<sub>0</sub> and P<sub>2</sub> have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V<sub>3</sub> is 120 degrees beyond V<sub>2</sub> along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P<sub>3</sub> that is Clifford parallel to P<sub>1</sub>. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V<sub>0</sub> to V<sub>3</sub> is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹<sub>4</sub>.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} bg58amf9g4lnazxch3g11anllpox4bq 0 302411 2816778 2816507 2026-06-24T23:22:09Z Scogdill 1331941 /* Benjamin-Constant */ 2816778 wikitext text/x-wiki == Dressmakers, Modistes, Costumiers, Perruquiers and Jewelers == === Not to Mention Seamstresses, Tailors, Lace-makers, Milliners, and Lady's Maids === Dominated as the social world was by women, fashion was an important part of the reportage on social events, with some reporters demonstrating knowledge of fabrics, cuts, laces, and so on. The Victorians had specialized terms for people who designed and made clothing, especially very fashionable clothes or haut couture, and specialized careers for those people who assisted women to acquire, manage and wear that clothing. Because of the popularity of fancy-dress or costume parties, some of the people assisting them were costumiers from the world of theatre and opera. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology|terminology]] and examples that follow are generally focused on the terms used by newspapers at the end of the 19th century in London. Some of those who helped construct the costumes and wigs follow, and most of those mentioned below helped supply designs, costumes, wigs, jewelry and so on. Most wealthy women purchased their corsets from corsetieres (or corsetiers). == Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes == Discussing the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the ''Gentlewoman'' says, "A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses."<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Modistes, couturiers (and couturieres) and fashion houses generally provided haut couture fashion to wealthy women who liked those kinds of styles, making their dresses and other accessories. === Bettans === Mary Farnan Bettans 84 Jermyn Street, London Mary Bettans, Queen Victoria's "official royal dressmaker" early in her reign, maker of Victoria's wedding dress. In 1841, she had "a 'well conducted establishment' with journeywomen, in-door apprentices and improvers.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-27|title=Mary Bettans|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Bettans&oldid=1324345065|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> In 1846 she was listed as "Court Dress and Dress Maker," and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Johnston|Elizabeth Johnston]] was "Dress Maker Extraordinary."<ref name=":17" /> === Creed, House of === House of Creed, in the 19th century British tailors and habit maker established in Paris like the House of Worth. Their clients included Queen Victoria, Empress Eugènie, and Count d'Orsay; Eugènie issued Creed & Cumberland a Royal Warrant.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-22|title=Creed (perfume house)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creed_(perfume_house)&oldid=1307198553|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Later became a perfumier. === Doucet === A gossipy article in ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' (citing the ''Daily Mail'') says, "Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear,"<ref name=":11">“Derbyshire Sayings and Doings.” ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' 12 June 1897, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 2A. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000228/18970612/018/0005.</ref> although she went as Cleopatra, according to the commemorative album, and not Zenobia (only the Duchess of Devonshire went as Zenobia). === Mme Durrant === Mme Durrant's concern, at the end of the 19th century, at least, was at 116 & 117 New Bond-street, London W. An ad in ''The Queen'' says,<blockquote>Court Dressmaker and Milliner. The Latest Paris Models in Morning, Afternoon, Tailor, and Evening Gowns, Millinery, and Mantles."<ref>"Madame Durrant, Court Dressmaker and Milliner." ''The Queen'' 15 April 1899, Saturday: 11 [of 88], Cols. 2–3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18990415/082/0011.</ref></blockquote>Mme Durrant made the costumes for the following guests at the ball: # [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry|Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry]]<ref>"Lines for the Ladies." ''Daily Gazette for Middlesbrough'' Thursday 16 June 1898: 4 [of 4], Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000159/18980616/060/0004.</ref> The dress and fabrics for the Marchioness of Londonderry as well as her quadrille, were made in Britain or Ireland.<ref name=":02">"This Morning’s News." London ''Daily News'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 3b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970706/038/0007.</ref> Mme Durrant made at least a couple of dresses for Queen Mary (early 20th century).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/278730664423122186/|title=1900 - 1919 Clothing panosundaki Pin|website=Pinterest|language=en|access-date=2023-03-08}} https://pin.it/2GUiBm7 and https://pin.it/2GUiBm7.</ref> Also, perhaps early 20th-c, Durrant had an address on Dover Street.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html|title=queerplaces - Sir Edwin Hardy Amies|website=www.elisarolle.com|access-date=2023-03-08}} http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html.</ref> ''The Queen'' also has ads for a "Mr. Durrrant's Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker" in Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1892.<ref>"Durrant Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker." [advertisement] ''The Queen'' 06 February 1892, Saturday: 5 [of 81], Cols. 2–3c [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18920206/043/0005.</ref> === Johnston === Elizabeth Johnston Elizabeth Johnston was listed as "Dress Maker Extraordinary" in 1846.<ref name=":17" /> === Mrs. Mason === M. or Mrs. Mason, of 4, New Burlington Street, W.<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * "Dress and Fashion" answer by Adern Holt in the ''Queen'' to queries posed by "Correspondents": "F<small>ANCY</small> D<small>RESS</small>. — For the beautiful ball such as you describe you cannot do better than go to Mrs Mason, New Burlington-street, for the costume about which you inquire. It needs very careful making and the most artistic designs, and these you would be sure to obtain there, for the dresses she made for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball were quite artistic masterpieces."<ref>Holt, Ardern. "Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents." The ''Queen'' 17 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 97], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970717/231/0049.</ref> Mrs. Mason made costumes for the following guests at the ball: # [[Social Victorians/People/Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Ashburton#Mabel, Lady Ashburton|Mabel, Lady Ashburton]] # [[Social Victorians/People/de Trafford#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Violet, Lady de Trafford]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Sophie Scott|Lady Sophie Scott]] # Lady Lurgan<ref name=":6" /> # [[Social Victorians/People/Leeds#Katherine, Duchess of Leeds|Katherine, Duchess of Leeds]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Sutherland#Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland|Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Meysey-Thompson#Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson|Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Edmonstone#Lady Ida Edmonstone|Lady Ida Edmonstone]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Goelet#Costumes at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Mary Goelet]] #[[Social Victorians/People/Cavendish#Lady Edward Cavendish|Lady Edward Cavendish]] #[[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Spencer-Churchill Wilson#Lady Sarah Wilson|Lady Sarah Wilson]] #[[Social Victorians/People/Derby#Constance Villiers Stanley, Countess of Derby|Countess of Derby]] #Mrs [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Gwendolen Bourke]]<ref name=":6" /> #Duchess of Roxburghe<ref name=":6" /> === Morin-Blossier === The French "tailoring workshop"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fashion.mam-e.it/morin-blossier/|title=Morin-Blossier -|date=2016-02-05|language=it-IT|access-date=2022-04-07}}</ref> of Morin-Blossier "possibly"<ref name=":6" /> made the dress worn to the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball]] by * Alexandra, Princess of Wales<ref name=":6" /> * [[Social Victorians/People/Prince Charles of Denmark|Princess Maud of Wales]] (Princess Charles of Denmark)<ref name=":43">Harris, Russell. "Prince and Princess Carl of Denmark, later King Haakon VII (1872-1957) and Queen Maud of Norway (1869-1938), and Princess Victoria of Wales (1868-1935), as a 16th century Danish courtier, and Ladies-in-Waiting at to Marguerite de Valois." "List of Sitters." ''In Calm Prose''. 2011 http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/denmark.html.</ref> * Duchess of York<ref name=":6" /> * Princess Victoria<ref name=":6" /> Alexandra seems to have preferred Morin-Blossier to the House of Worth. === Redfern === Redfern & Sons John Redfern Cowes, Isle of Wight, eventually with extensions in Paris, London, Edinburgh and New York.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-24|title=Redfern (couture)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Redfern_(couture)&oldid=1307596205|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Active 1855–1932, specialized in tailored dresses and suits, especially for women who went yachting, rode horses or played tennis — or who just liked the look of the tailored outfit.<ref name=":18" /> The Paris house was a couturier by the early 1890s.<ref name=":18" /> ==== Clients ==== * Lillie Langtry, 1879<ref name=":18" /> * Queen Victoria, Dressmaker by Royal Appointment, 1888<ref name=":18" /> * Alexandra, Princess of Wales<ref name=":18" /> === Messrs Russell and Allen === Old Bond-street., W. Made presentation dresses for 8 of the following in 1913<ref>"Their Majesties' Court." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 17 May 1913, Saturday: 35 [of 64], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/19130517/296/0035. Same print title, p. 787.</ref>: # Mrs. A. C. Hardy, of Montreal # Mrs. Thorburn # Mrs. Ralph Berners # Miss Spencer Warwick # [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Miss [Daphne] Bourke]] # Mrs. Henry Barran # Miss D. Hickman # Hon. Irene Molesworth # The Hon. Edith Winn # The Hon. Hilaria St. Aubyn # The Hon. Mary Charteris # Miss Grace Holley === Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin === Mrs Mary Sims, Dawson Street, Dublin Mrs Sims made a dress decorated with beetle wings in c. 1880; this dress still exists and, according to Elaine Hewitt, is in the NMI collections.<ref name=":13">Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, Naional Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks. Saturday 16th February 2013. https://www.academia.edu/2455567/The_material_culture_of_infancy_and_early_childhood_in_Ireland_c_1680_1830?auto=download.</ref> Hewitt's precis for an exhibit called ''Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, National Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks'' says, "Mary Sims was a court dressmaker by Royal appointment, who established herself from 1863 as the most prominent dressmaker in Dublin." Mrs Sims made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]: * [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan|Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan]] Other people Mrs Sims made clothes for: * Alexandra, Princess of Wales, 1885: Kate Strasdin offers an example of Alexandra's strategic use of clothing: a gown Alexandra wore to a Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace was, according to the ''Times'', "a dress of rich yellow satin and silver brocade, draped with silver lace, corsage to correspond, made by Mrs Sims of Dublin."{{rp|1885, p. 11}} What is strategic is the release of Mrs Sims's name, according to Strasdin, since "[t]he communication of this detail can only have come from the royal household itself, demonstrating the control that Alexandra exerted over details released to the press relating to her appearance."<ref>Strasdin, Kate, "Reporting Royal Dress: Queen Alexandra and Royal Image Making." Falmouth University Research Repository. http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk.</ref> * Ishbel, Marchioness Aberdeen, 1886: "Ishbel, Lady Aberdeen (1857–1939), [wore a "costume of an Irish lady in the thirteenth century"] in 1886 while presiding over a garden party at the Vice Regal Lodge in the Phoenix Park in Dublin, an event to which the 2,000 invited guests were expected to wear clothes of Irish manufacture."<ref>Alex Ward, "Dress and National Identity: Women’s Clothing and the Celtic Revival," ''Costume'', 48:2, 2014, 193-212, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/0590887614Z.00000000050.</ref>{{rp|199}} === Smaller Concerns === * Madame Fréderic: made the costume for Princess Mary of Teck<ref name=":6" /> * Jays, Ltd., Regent-street<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * M. Machinka, Conduit-street<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * Maison Lucille: made Mrs. James's costume<ref name=":6" /> * Mrs. Nettleship: made the Countess of Yarborough's costume<ref name=":6" /> * Paquin, of Dover-street<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}: made the dress of Madame von André<ref name=":6" /> * "Picador" designed and drew illustrations of dresses for the ''Lady's Pictorial''.<ref>"Fashions for Fêtes, Specially Designed by 'Picador.'" ''Lady's Pictorial'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 41 [of 92], full page. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0005980/18970710/432/0041. Print title same, p. 57.</ref> They drew some of the costumes for the ''Lady's Pictorial''<nowiki/>'s big article on the Duchess of Devonshire's ball (on 10 July 1897). === Worth, of Paris === Located in Paris, Maison Worth or the House of Worth — named for owner and designer Englishman Charles Frederick Worth — was a very influential couturier in the 2nd half of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th centuries. The dresses Worth designed were typically handmade of very fine materials.<blockquote>Worth’s designs are notable for his use of lavish fabrics and trimmings, his incorporation of elements of historic dress, and his attention to fit. While the designer still created one-of-a-kind pieces for his most important clients, he is especially known for preparing a variety of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients made their selections and had garments tailor-made in Worth’s workshop.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm|title=Charles Frederick Worth (1825–1895) and the House of Worth {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|last=Krick|first=Authors: Jessa|website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|language=en|access-date=2024-07-12}} https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm.</ref></blockquote>After having won design prizes at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, which was housed at the Crystal Palace, and the 1854 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Worth opened his own design house in Paris in 1858.<ref name=":7" /> In 1869,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-18|title=Eugénie de Montijo|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eug%C3%A9nie_de_Montijo&oldid=1322973534|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> the Empress Eugénie appointed him designer to the court of France<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-07-03|title=House of Worth|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Worth&oldid=1232307431|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Worth.</ref>:<blockquote>Worth’s rise as a designer coincided with the establishment of the Second Empire in France. The restoration of a royal house in 1852, with Napoleon III (1808–1873) as the new emperor, once again made Paris an imperial capital and the setting for numerous state occasions. Napoleon III implemented a grand vision for both Paris and France, initiating changes and modernization that revitalized the French economy and made Paris into a showpiece of Europe. The demand for luxury goods, including textiles and fashionable dress, reached levels that had not been seen since before the French Revolution (1789–99). When Napoleon III married Empress Eugénie (1826–1920), her tastes set the style at court .... The empress’ patronage ensured Worth’s success as a popular dressmaker from the 1860s onward.<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>Other patrons included women from Empress Eugénie's court, "Elizabeth of Austria, Margherita of Italy, Mme. de Castiglione, Mme. de Pourtales, and every reigning star in the theatrical and operatic world."<ref>[Worth, House of.] {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfFeminineFashion|title=A History Of Feminine Fashion (1800s to 1920s)}} Before 1927. [Likely commissioned by Worth. Link is to Archive.org; info from Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worth_Biarritz_salon.jpg.]</ref> (6) By the end of the 19th century, wealthy women from the US, the UK and around Europe were making their way to Maison Worth in Paris. Besides his contributions to in developments in models of promotion and business for the couture fashion house, Worth's real influence took the form of a particular look, which for the end of the century we call the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Traditional Style|traditional Victorian style]]. After Charles Worth's death in 1895, his sons Gaston-Lucien and Jean-Philippe "succeeded in maintaining his high standards," and Jean-Philippe especially "follow[ed] his father’s aesthetic, with his use of dramatic fabrics and lavish trimmings."<ref name=":7" /> While we associate a particular look with it, the House of Worth designed its clothing for its customers, whose relationship with the traditional style could be nuanced and fluctuating. For example, Lillie Langtry sometimes purchased her gowns at Maison Worth, even at the time she was known not to be corseted, so the style of the House of Worth is also less static and extreme than the gowns of some of its customers might suggest. ==== Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball ==== The House of Worth made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]: # [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]], although the costume was designed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#M. Comelli|Attilio Comelli]]. # Lady Randolph Churchill<ref name=":6" /> # Mrs. Arthur Paget<ref name=":6" /> # Daisy, Countess of Warwick<ref name=":6" /> == Costumiers for Theatres and Operas == At the end of the 19th century, the profession of costumier depended on a knowledge of the history of clothing, although the costumiers themselves generally did not feel constrained by notions of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Historical Accuracy|historical accuracy]] for the productions they designed for. ['''until the industrial revolution women made fabrics and clothing, plus ppl wore clothing every day, so clothing was not considered important. Planché; actual history of clothing vs just looking at portraits. History of clothing: foundation garments, items specific to a particular time like a codpiece, fabrics changed and evolved over time, plus a greater variety of fabrics; fabric and empires. The idea of a coherent production design with costumes designed for the particular actor in that production may have been changing about this time; before this actors provided their own costumes; Ellen Terry was probably part of this, Gilbert and Sullivan.'''] Not present at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] but certainly very involved in it were the people who made or provided the clothing, hats, wigs, jewelry, and other accessories. Besides people who made the costumes (including costumiers, dressmakers, and modistes) and wigs (perruquiers), embroiderers, jewelers and shoemakers are occasionally mentioned although almost never named in the newspaper accounts. Not all of these may have been costumiers, at least professional ones; some of the less well known might have been [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes|clothiers]] instead. === Mr. Charles Alias === Mr. Charles Alias, 36 Soho Square ==== Personal Details ==== * Charles Georges Alias (1852 – 11 May 1921<ref name=":5">Principal Probate Registry. ''Calendar of the Grants of Probate and Letters of Administration made in the Probate Registries of the High Court of Justice in England''. London, England © Crown copyright. Ancestry.com. ''England & Wales, National Probate Calendar (Index of Wills and Administrations), 1858-1995'' [database on-line]. Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010.</ref>) * Sarah Alias () Notes # Will probated on 6 October 1921, effects of £6376 18s. 5d. to Marie Alias, widow.<ref name=":5" /> # 1881 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 114 St Martins Lane in St Martin in the Fields; his occupation is listed as Costumier (Milliner); 2 boarders and a servant were living with them: Robert Soutar (age 51, comedian/actor), Harriet Morgan (age 28, comedian/actor) and the general domestic servant Lucy Ann Hewitt (age 23). Other servants' names follow, but apparently they were not living in 114 St Martins Lane.<ref>''Census Returns of England and Wales, 1881''. Kew, Surrey, England: The National Archives of the UK (TNA): Public Record Office (PRO), 1881. Class: ''RG11''; Piece: ''328''; Folio: ''42''; Page: ''27''; GSU roll: ''1341071''. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. ''1881 England Census'' [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.</ref> # 1891 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 36 Soho Square; his occupation is listed as Theatrical Costumier; ==== Costumier ==== [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Comelli|M. Comelli]], designer and costumier at Covent Garden, designed the costumes that were constructed by Mr. Alias of Soho Square.<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * Several newspapers specifically name Mr. Alias as one of their sources of information about the costumes for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball: The London ''Echo''<ref>“A Jubilee Ball. Brilliant Scene at Devonshire House. Some of the Costumes Worn.” The London ''Echo'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Cols. 6a – 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0004596/18970703/027/0002.</ref>{{rp|p. 2, Col. 6a}}; the London ''Evening Standard'' <ref name=":8">“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}} * The column "Girls' Gossip" names M. Alias in its discussion of the costumes:<blockquote>Herr von André was a splendid Benvenuto Cellini in brown and crimson, a perfect triumph of M. Alias's art. In fact, it was owing to the studious research and historical accuracy displayed by this clever costumier that so many of the dresses were so realistically pictorial. Alias dressed the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, Duke of York, Prince Christian, Lord Lathom, and about a hundred other great ones of our island for the occasion.<ref name=":12">“Girls’ Gossip.” ''Truth'' 8 July 1897, Thursday: 41 [of 70], Col. 1b – 42, Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002961/18970708/089/0041.</ref>{{rp|42, Col. 2c}}</blockquote> *"Charles Alias was French and very small. He had started as a traveller in artificial flowers and married a little dressmaker in Long Acre. They started making theatrical costumes and later moved to 36 Soho Square."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI|title=As You Were: Reminiscences|last=Byng|first=Douglas|date=1970|publisher=Duckworth|isbn=978-0-7156-0543-1|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI.</ref> * In its Appendix of Royal Warrant Holders, the 1902 ''Debrett's'' also says "Charles Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square. W."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PP7&dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&f=false|title=Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage: Comprising Information Concerning All Persons Bearing Hereditary Or Courtesy Titles, Knights, and Companions of All the Various Orders, and the Collateral Branches of All Peers and Baronets|date=1902|publisher=Dean & Son, Limited|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PP7&dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&f=false.</ref> (n.p.; end of book) * The ''Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'', Vol. 1, says, "Alias & Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major success with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'' [a comic opera by Alfred Cellier, libretto by B. C. Stephenson, "transferred" from the Gaiety to the Prince of Wales's Theatre in 1886 and then to the Lyric Theatre in 1888, the most successful of the productions<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-03-25|title=Dorothy (opera)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorothy_(opera)&oldid=1146605626|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_(opera).</ref>], and on into the 1890s by which ..."; "The Aliases made their mark in the West End when they provided the costumes for the original London production of La Fille de ..."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI|title=The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre|last=G?nzl|first=Kurt|date=1994|publisher=Schirmer Books|isbn=978-0-02-871445-5|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI.</ref> (taking from snippets) * BNA search: Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square, London: 1898 shows a lot of advertisements. * In 1892 Mr. C. Alias, 36, Soho Square, W., was a director of the 13th Annual Dramatic Ball, at the Freemasons' Tavern.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/account/register?countrykey=0&showgiftvoucherclaimingoptions=false&gift=false&nextpage=%2faccount%2flogin%3freturnurl%3d%252fviewer%252fbl%252f0001682%252f18920213%252f011%252f0004&rememberme=false&cookietracking=false&partnershipkey=0&newsletter=false&offers=false&registerreason=none&showsubscriptionoptions=false&showcouponmessaging=false&showfreetrialmessaging=false&showregisteroptions=false&showloginoptions=false&showcaptchaerrormessage=false&isonlyupgradeable=false|title=Register {{!}} British Newspaper Archive|website=www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk|access-date=2023-04-28}} https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001682/18920213/011/0004.</ref> * In a gushing piece written for the 15 December 1899 ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'', "The Bohemian Girl" says that Alias executed Comelli designs for a Christmas pantomime ''Triumph of Music''. She goes on to talk about Willie Clarkson's work for another pantomime and a visit by Mrs. Langtry.<ref>"Bohemian Girl, The." "Preparing for the Pantomime." ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'' 15 December 1899, Friday: 24 [of 60], Cols. 1b–c and 2b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002237/18991215/160/0024.</ref> Russell Harris quotes ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Blackwell, 1994. Vol. 1, p. 19.):<blockquote>ALIAS, Charles (b France, 184-?; d London, 11 May 1921). The most famous name in British theatrical costumery in the second half of the 19th century. The son of a French doctor, the young Alias fought alongside his father in the Franco-Prussian war where he is said to have lost the sight in one eye. He visited Britain and the Philharmonic Theatre, Islington, shortly afterwards as a dresser with the French dance troupe, Les Clodoches, and there he met and married Miss Price, the theatre's costumer. Although Alias had no experience in the theatre, he joined his wife in setting up the freelance firm of M et Mme Alias & Co, '''someties''' designing and manufacturing, or more often just making up from the designs of such artists as [Comelli or] Wilhelm or [[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin]], the costumes for an ever-extending series of musical shows. The Aliases made their mark in the West End when theyprovided the costumes for the original London production of ''La Fille de Madame Angot'' (1873), and thereafter they costumes, either wholly or partly, many of London's most important musical productions including the burlesques at the Gaiety Theatre (''The Bohemian G'yurl, Little Dr Faust, Gulliver, Il Sonnambulo, Pretty Esmeralda'' etc), the Royalty (''Madcap, '''Pluto''''' '''etc'''), and the Strand (''The '''Lying''' Dutchman, L'Africaine, Nemesis, Loo, Antarctic, Champagne, The Baby, Intimidad''), Gilbert's early ''Tospyturveydom'' and ''Princess Toto'', Gilbert and Sullivan premières at the '''OPera''' Comique (''The Pirates of Penzance'') and the Savoy (''Iolanthe''), the vast spectaculars at the Alhambra (''La Poule aux oeufs d'or'' etc) and, most noticeably, the long string of French opéras-bouffes and opéras-comiques which were produced in Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. These included the record-breaking ''Trouillat (La Belle Normande), Le Jour et la nuit (Manola), La Timbale d'argent (The Duke's Daughter), La Marjolaine, Les Prés St Gervais'' and most of the long string of adaptations from the French made by Alias's close friend Henry Farnie, and produced by Alexander Henderson. Alias maintained a close connection with his homeland. His home at 48 Soho Square became well known as a first stopping place for Frenchmen new to London and a congenial gathering place for theatricals, and he as a useful and friendly intermediary in various theatrical dealings between London and Paris. Hervé, Planquette, Chassaigne, Audran and Lecocq were all guests at Soho Square and the little costumier was said to have been instrumental in the brothers Mansell bringing Hervé and his ''Chilpéric'' (1870) to London, and thus helping set off the craze for opéra-bouffe which dominated the 1870s musical theatre in England. He also encouraged Planquette to work with H B Farnie on an original musical for Britain - the result of which was the enduring ''Rip van Winkle''. Alias & Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major succss with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'', and on into the 1890s by which stage they had become largely costume-makers rather than designers. Alias himself had by this time become one of the 'characters' of the London theatre, always anxiously asking 'What time de répétition générale?' as an opening approached, but always punctually ready with the show's costumes on dress-rehearsal night. When Mme Alias died, Charles remarried and continued the business with his new wife, Mme Marie Wallet Floret from the Paris Opéra wardrobe, up to his death.<ref>Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html|title=King Edward VII at the Devonshire House Ball 1897, by Lafayette|website=lafayette.org.uk|access-date=2024-07-23}} Lafayette Negative Archive http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html. Quoting ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Vol. 1, Blackwell, 1994, p. 19).</ref></blockquote>'''Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball''' Mr. Alias made costumes for the following guests at the Duchess of Devonshire’s 1897 fancy-dress ball: # [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] # The [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught|Duke of Connaught]] # The [[Social Victorians/People/George and Mary|Duke of York]] # Duke of Fife<ref name=":6">Harris, Russell. "Costumes by Named Dressmakers." {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/|title=The Devonshire House Ball 1897 photographed by Lafayette|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2024-05-21}} 2011. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/.</ref> # The Duke of Devonshire<ref name=":6" /> # [[Social Victorians/People/Stonor#Julia Caroline Stonor, Marquise of Hautpoul|Julia Stonor, Marquise of Hartpoul]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Gwendolen Bourke]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Mar and Kellie#Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie|Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Tweedmouth#Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth|Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught#Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught|Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Douglas-Hamilton Duke of Hamilton|Mary, Dowager Duchess of Hamilton]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Portland|The Duchess of Portland]] # [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]] # Adolf von André<ref name=":6" /> # Lady St. Oswald<ref name=":6" /> # Earl of Rosebery<ref name=":6" /> === Faustin Bedbeter === [[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin Bedbeter]] was a caricaturist and painter who left France after Bismarck's seige of Paris and settled in London, working for the ''London Figaro'' and ''Punch''. He was a costumier beginning at least in 1875. He designed the costumes for a 1909 revival of [[Social Victorians/People/Gilbert|Gilbert]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Sullivan]]'s ''The Pirates of Penzance''. [[File:Jean-Joseph-Benjamin Constant (1845-1902) - Queen Victoria (1819-1901) - RCIN 403425 - Royal Collection.jpg|alt=Old painting of elderly woman with small crown, sitting on a throne, surrounded by golden light|thumb|Benjamin-Constant's 1899 ''Queen Victoria'']] === Benjamin-Constant === Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant (1845–1902) was a French society portraitist and painter in the Orientalist school.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Joseph_Benjamin-Constant&oldid=1358565356|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> He also seems to have designed at least 2 costumes, a cloak in 1890 for soprano Nellie Melba and an outfit for [[Social Victorians/People/Churchill|Lady Randolph Churchill]], who went to the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball dressed as Byzantine empress Theodora. For the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball, Benjamin-Constant designed the costume for [[Social Victorians/People/Churchill#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Lady Randolph Churchill's Theodora]]; Worth of Paris did the construction. The same team created Nellie Melba's cloak. Benjamin-Constant's 1899 portrait of Queen Victoria (right) is a perceptive study of her. === Willie Clarkson === Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street Clarkson is also listed among the [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Perruquiers|perruquiers]]. Clarkson made the costumes for the following guests at the ball: * Grand Duke Michael of Russia<ref name=":0">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4A–8 Col. 2B. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} * The Duke of Manchester<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} * [[Social Victorians/People/Gleichen#Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe Langenburg|Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe]]<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} * Princess Louise<ref name=":1" /> === M. Comelli === Attilio Giuseppe de Comelli von Stuckenfeld (1858-1925). Attillo Giuseppe Comelli (1858–1925) was an artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.<ref name=":132">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=Attilio+Comelli&source=bl&ots=lFB0If7CwV&sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&q=Attilio%20Comelli&f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.</ref> Comelli "was appointed house designer to the Royal Opera House in the 1890s"<ref name=":2">"Attilio Comelli Design Collection." ''Royal Opera House'' https://www.rohcollections.org.uk/collectionComelli.aspx (retrieved February 2024).</ref> continuing "to the early 1920s."<ref>{{Citation|title=Drury Lane Design Collection|url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/|date=1915|accessdate=2024-02-13|first=Attilio|last=Comelli}}. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/.</ref> At the same time, "He was credited as Artist in Chief at the Alhambra, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and the Royal Opera House in London, and also found time to provide costumes for some of the Savoy operas and for Christmas pantomimes in London and Australia."<ref name=":2" /> After coming "to London in the late 19th century [he] quickly established himself as one of the most prolific designers for the London stage."<ref name=":2" /> He described his research process for costume design for the July 1902 ''Cassell's Magazine'':<blockquote>When I get the order to prepare designs for a new play … [sic ellipsis] I first spend some weeks in studying, at the British and South Kensington [now the Victoria & Albert] Museum, every available authority on the period, and I frequently send my brother to Paris and Berlin, if there is a chance of getting information there that is not available in London’. (‘The Art of Theatrical Disguise’ by Sidney Dark, ''Cassell’s Magazine'', July 1902, pp.162–7).<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>According to the Royal Opera House, he "appears to have had several siblings, including possibly Emilio Andrea Comelli (1862–1929)."<ref name=":2" /> Also, perhaps another relative, Italian painter Dante Comelli (1880–1958) designed for the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden later. Comelli's designs for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]: * Comelli designed the costumes that were constructed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mr. Charles Alias|Mr. Alias of Soho Square]].<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * Comelli designed the costumes of the attendants of [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]] as well as her own costume. Alias did not construct her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#The House of Worth|the House of Worth]] did. * Comelli may have designed the costumes of the entourage of [[Social Victorians/People/Pless#Daisy, Princess Henry of Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]], although Mrs. Mason made Daisy's dress.<ref>"Dresses Worn at the Duchess of Devonshire's Ball on July 2. Made by Mrs. Mason, 4 New Burlington Street, W." The ''Queen'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 98 BNA; p. 74 print page), Col. 1a–3c [of 3]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18970710/168/0048?browse=true.</ref> George Cornwallis-West says his costume was "designed by a famous theatrical designer of the day."<ref>Qtd. in Martin Spies, ""Late Victorian Aristocrats and the Racial Other: The Devonshire House Ball of 1897." ''Race & Class'' April–June 2016 (57.4): 95–103.</ref>{{rp|97}} [[File:Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth.jpg|thumb|''Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth'', Sargent 1889]] === Comyns Carr and Nettleship === Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship According to Smallhythe Place, the "beetle wing dress" for Ellen Terry's 1888 performance as Lady Macbeth was designed by Alice Comyns Carr and constructed by Ada Nettleship, the "team" that made Ellen Terry's costumes for perhaps 2 decades.<ref name=":14">"'Beetle Wing Dress' for Lady Macbeth." Smallhythe Place, Kent. The National Trusts Collections. Object NT 1118839.1 (1888) https://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/1118839.1.</ref> John Singer Sargent's 1889 portrait of Terry in this dress is at right. (Smallhythe Place, Kent, part of the National Trust, was Terry's home from 1899 to her death. This dress is part of that collection.) Nettleship crocheted the sleeves and skirt of Terry's costume to resemble "soft chain armour,"<ref name=":14" /> which she overlaid with wing cases from 1,000 beetles.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://womenwhomeantbusiness.com/2021/01/21/ada-nettleship-1856-1932/|title=Ada Nettleship (1856-1932)|last=B|first=Lizzie|date=2021-01-21|website=Women Who Meant Business|language=en|access-date=2025-06-06}}</ref> Comyn Carr and Nettleship's beetle-wing costume was not the only or even the first dress decorated with the iridescent wings. Ada Nettleship had used beetle wings in "an 1886 dress and an 1887 hat for Constance Lloyd that were oversewn with iridescent green beetle wings"<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Ada Nettleship|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Nettleship&oldid=1286707541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> — and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin|Mrs Sims]] had used some for a dress in c. 1880.<ref name=":13" /> ==== Personal Details ==== Alice Laura Vansittart Comyns Carr designed costumes, and dressmaker Adaline Cort Nettleship constructed Comyns Carr's designs. They were a "costume team" separate from those who did the costumes for "the rest of the Lyceum company."<ref name=":14" /> They appear to have maintained individual establishments, with Nettelship often constructing costumes for Terry that were designed by Comyns Carr. Alice Comyns Carr (1850–1927) was married to J. Comyns Carr, "drama and art critic, author, playwright and director of the Grosvenor Gallery."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Alice Comyns Carr|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Comyns_Carr&oldid=1286707345|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> She was associated with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress movement]] and was friends with Edward Burne-Jones and John Singer Sargent as well as Lawrence Alma-Tadema, "the writers Robert Browning and Henry James and composers Hubert Parry and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]]."<ref name=":15" /> Ada (Adaline) Cort Nettleship (1856 – 19 December 1932<ref name=":16" />) was married to painter John Trivett Nettleship. Some of her "[n]otable clients included the soprano Marie Tempest, and the actors Ellen Terry, Winifred Emery, Sarah Bernhardt, and Mrs Patrick Campbell."<ref name=":16" /> Like Comyns Carr, Nettleship was an advocate of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress design]], making dresses for Constance Lloyd in that progressive style, including her dress for her wedding to [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]]. Nettleship "in her youth had been a noted ‘art-embroiderer’ in the style of May Morris."<ref name=":15" /> Alice Comyns Carr published her ''Reminiscences'' in 1926, the year before her death. Ada Nettleship was covered by the newspapers from time to time ("''St James Gazette'' 30/5/1883; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 7/7/1884; ''Morning Post'' 16/10/1886; ''The Queen'' 13/8/1887; ‘Ellen Terry’s gowns and the woman who makes them’ by Bessie O’Connor in ''Harpers Bazaar'' 9th Jan 1897; ‘What Actresses Pay For Their Dresses’ in ''New Zealand Herald'' 25/08/1900; ''South Wales Daily News'' 25/1/1902; ''Leeds Mercury'' 13/2/1914."<ref name=":15" />) === Mme Fisher === Mme. or Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street, Covent-garden<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PR2&dq=Mr.+May,+Garrick-street,+Covent-garden&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&redir_esc=y|title=The Play-pictorial|date=1908|publisher=Greening & Company, Limited|language=en}} P. ADVT ii. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ.</ref> <ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} *Miss Mary E. Fisher is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}} === Fox === Charles H. Fox: "perruquier and costumier Charles H. Fox. Since 1878, Fox had been a major supplier of wigs and costumes for private theatricals and fancy dress balls."<ref name=":3">"B. J. Simmons & Co.: An Inventory of Its Costume Design Records at the Harry Ransom Center." ''B. J. Simmons & Co. Costume Design Records''. Harry Ransom Center. The University of Texas. 2023. Retrieved February 2024. https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=01440.</ref> === Harrison === Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * In a chatty column written as a letter to "Dearest Amy," the article in ''Truth'' on the ball says, "Princess Henry of Pless was another [Queen of Sheba], and her dress was absolutely magnificent. The conception of it was both poetic and artistic, and is due, I believe, to the genius of Mrs. Harrison."<ref name=":12" />{{rp|42, Col. 1b}} * There are ads for Harrison's. === May === Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden<ref name=":9" /> * Mr. May is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}} === Nathan === Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; 17, Convent-street, Picadilly *Messrs. L. and H. Nathan is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}} *Mr. Karl, artist, designed the costumes made by Messrs. L. and H. Nathan of Coventry-street<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} <ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}} *Messrs Nathan made the costumes for the following people: **[[Social Victorians/People/Harcourt#Elizabeth Harcourt|Elizabeth, Lady Harcourt]] **[[Social Victorians/People/Rothschild Family#Emma, Lady Rothschildand Nathan Mayer, Lord Rothschild|Emma, Lady Rothschild]] === Simmons and Sons === Messrs. John Simmons and Sons, Coventry House, Haymarket.<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Simmons, 7 and 8, King Street, Covent Garden.<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Possibly there are 2 Simmonses? The Harry Ransom Center has a collection on this firm:<blockquote>The London costumier B. J. Simmons & Co. was founded in 1857 by a Mr. B. J. Simmons and operated by his direct descendants well into the 1930s. Simmons' costumes were known for their correctness of period, sophisticated design, and high quality. ... In their busy Covent Garden workshop, dressmakers turned out immaculately constructed stage apparel, often from renderings by leading costume designers. Successful theater managers repeatedly turned to Simmons for historical costumes, especially Herbert Beerbohm Tree whose magnificent stagings of Shakespeare were often outfitted by Simmons. While best known as a historical costumier for the London stage, Simmons' output was diverse. The company created costumes for a variety of shows in the West End, the provinces, and overseas, ranging from Victorian pantomime to the "kitchen sink" dramas of the 1960s. ... In addition to making new costumes for professional productions, Simmons operated a thriving rental business which allowed operatic and dramatic societies across England to hire beautifully made garments for amateur productions. Like many theatrical costumiers, Simmons maintained a substantial nontheatrical trade. Simmons began as a family-run outfit known variously as B. J. Simmons, J. B. Simmons, John Simmons & Son/Sons, Simmons/Symmons/Simmonds Brothers, G. B. Simmons, and B. & G. Simmons. The force majeure seems to have been John Simmons, whose name appears in ''The London Stage'' and in London newspapers until 1922. According to J. P. Wearing, between 1890 and 1899 Simmons provided costumes for at least forty-two theatre productions in London.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Simmons' contributions to costumes for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]: * Messrs. John Simmons and Son is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}} * Simmons and Sons made costumes for the following guests at the ball: ** [[Social Victorians/People/Ellesmere#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Francis Egerton, 3rd Earl of Ellesmere]]<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} ** The Duke of Somerset<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} ** The Marquis of Winchester<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} ** Earl Beauchamp<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} ** Earl Carrington<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} ** Earl Essex<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} ** Viscount Esher<ref name=":6" /> ** Lord Ampthill<ref name=":6" /> ** Lady Ampthill<ref name=":6" /> Simmons and Sons is also sometimes listed as having made clothing for other social events: * For the [[Social Victorians/1892-02-10 Alington Leigh Wedding|very fashionable February 1892 wedding between Henry Sturt, Lord Alington and Evelyn Leigh]] — the "most important social event of last week in the social world"<ref name=":03">"Lord Alington to Miss Leigh." ''Gentlewoman'' 20 February 1892, Saturday: 21 [of 46], Cols. 1a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18920220/092/0021. Same print title, p. 237.</ref>{{rp|Col. 1a}} — "Messrs. Simmons & Sons, of Coventry House, Haymarket, made the charming little suits for the pages, which were so much admired."<ref name=":03" />{{rp|Col. 3a}} === Smaller Concerns === * Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street<ref name=":42">“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.</ref>{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} * Mr. W. Clarkson, 44, Wellington Street (costumes and wigs)<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} === Unknown Whether Costumier or Dressmaker === *Mme. Ellis: "The pretty costumes of Merlin and Vivian worn by [[Social Victorians/People/Walker|Mr and Mrs Willie Walker]] at the Devonshire House Ball, were made by Mme. Ellis, 16, Upper George-street, Bryanston-square."<ref>Holt, Ardern. "Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents." The ''Queen'' 24 July 1897, Saturday: 54 [of 88], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970724/271/0054.</ref> * Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor Place * "and many others"<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} == Perruquiers == Mr. W. Clarkson "supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family"<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:<blockquote>At the Duchess of Devonshire's ball, on the 2d inst., the Prince of Wales looked as if he had stepped out of a masterpiece by one of the old painters. His wig, which completed a correct make-up as Knight of Malta, was specially made and fitted by that favoured "Royal Perruquier" Mr Willie Clarkson, who also had the honour of making and fitting the wigs worn by Prince Charles of Denmark, the Duke of York, and the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, and of dressing the hair of the Duchess of York and the Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein. Mr Clarkson also supplied a number of the costumes, including those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, Princess Louise, and the Duke of Manchester. It would not be safe to say how many crowned heads have literally "passed through the hands" of Mr Clarkson. The art of the perruquier is a very difficult one, requiring historical knowledge, patient research, and great taste. It is most essential to the success of any theatrical performance or of an historical ball.<ref name=":1">“Foreign Plays and Players.” ''The Era'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 15 [of 28], Col. 3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000053/18970710/032/0015.</ref></blockquote>Clarkson also provided costumes and wigs for the [[Social Victorians/Royals Amateur Theatricals|amateur theatricals]] that the royals took part in to entertain themselves. == Jewelers == By way of gossip about the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], according to the ''Westminster Gazette'', "One very great lady indeed had been lent, by a jeweller, diamonds worth about £13,000."<ref name=":4">“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 2c}} === The Parisian Diamond Company === * 43, Burlington Arcade * 85, New Bond street * 143, Regent-street After naming costumiers for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the ''Gentlewoman'' specifically mentions the Parisian Company for its jewelry and Mr. Norman of Bond Street for the shoes he made:<blockquote>Among other firms [than the costumiers] who lent their aid to make the great ball a huge success was the Parisian Company, whose sparkling gems and jewels, and whose ropes of pearls and precious stones, enhanced the charms of many a fair dame in her dainty old-world costume, and the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, who designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &c., &c.<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}}</blockquote>The ''Lady's Pictorial'' also mentions the Parisian Diamond Company in the context of the Devonshire House ball:<blockquote>The Duchess of Devonshire’s fancy dress ball promises to be an almost historic function, where all that is loveliest in the way of women, gowns, and jewels will be brought together to dazzle the eyes of all beholders. And from what a little bird has whispered to me I am convinced that one of the sensations of the night will be provided by the exquisite and wonderful pieces of jewellery which are being executed for the occasion by that enterprising Parisian Diamond Co., to whose inventive genius there is absolutely no end. They have excelled themselves in the unique and daring originality of the designs — in fact they have taken full advantage of a very special opportunity for the display of their perfect taste and workmanship. If you are not going to the Duchess’s ball, you will most certainly be present at one or other of the festivities of the Jubilee season, and one or other of these things of beauty and of diamonds, which are portrayed for you on page 931, will be in consequence a necessary addition to your jewel-case. I am quite sure that if you put the case properly before an indulgent husband or father he will see the full force of the argument. What could possibly be lovelier than that spray of wild roses and ferns, caught together with a true-lover's knot, while trails of ribbon cross the corsage and fasten high up on the right shoulder with a quaint lizard? It is a triumph of design and workmanship — my congratulations to the Company who produced it and the lucky woman who is its ultimate possessor. Failing the corsage ornament, that comb, or dagger, or aigrette, where the famous Orient pearls are introduced, would, I am sure, be acceptable — go and see them at the Company’s new establishment at 143, Regent-street, where the beauty of the jewels is enhanced by the artistic loveliness of the surroundings, with which, by the way, I have already made you acquainted. The Company’s other addresses are 43, Burlington Arcade, and 85, New Bond street.<ref>"Jewellery Wonders by the Parisian Diamond Co." London Fashions. ''Lady's Pictorial'' 26 June 1897, Saturday: 63 [of 92], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/18970626/104/0063. Same print title, p. 945.</ref></blockquote> == Shoemakers == According to the ''Gentlewoman'', "the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, ... designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &c., &c."<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}} == People Who Made Costumes for the Ball == The ''Queen'' often mentions the dressmaker or costumier in its reports on the costumes at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball at Devonshire House]] as well as in general. The ''Gentlewoman'' covered this topic explicitly in its report on the ball:<blockquote>Very great credit is due to the taste and artistic powers of the designers of these dresses, and particular mention must be made of M. Comelli, of Covent Garden Theatre, whose facile pen designed most of the superb toilettes so ably carried out by Messrs. Alias, of Soho-square. Other theatrical costumiers who brought all their special talents to bear on the historical and fancy costumes required for this function were Messrs. Nathan (artist, Mr. Karl), of Coventry-street; Messrs. John Simmons & Sons, Haymarket; Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street; Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street; Simmons, 7 and 8, King-street; Mr. Clarkson, 44, Wellington-street; Mme. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street; and many others. A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses. Amongst these we chronicle M. Mason, New Burlington-street; M. Machinka, Conduit-street; Paquin, of Dover-street; Jays, Ltd., Regent-street; Messrs. Durrant, 116, Bond-street (who made Lady Londonderry's magnificent gown), and numerous others.<ref name=":42" />{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}</blockquote>The London ''Evening Standard'' cites the sources of its information about the costumes:<blockquote>We are indebted for some of the particulars of the dresses to Mr. Charles Alias, Soho-square; Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; Messrs. John Simmons and Son, Coventry House, Haymarket; Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden; Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26 Bedford-street, Covent-garden; and the ''Lady'' newspaper.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}</blockquote>The ''Morning Post'' also addressed the costumiers. It named Mr. Alias in association with the royals, as well as mentioning several other costumiers by name:<blockquote>The costumes worn by the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, and the Duchess of Connaught, as well as many others were supplied by Mr. Alias, of Soho-square. Those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, the Duke of Manchester, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and others were made by Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street, who also supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family. Messrs. Simmons and Sons, of the Haymarket, made a large number of costumes, including those of the Duke of Somerset, the Marquis of Winchester, Earls Beauchamp, Carrington, Ellesmere, and Essex. Nathan, of Coventry-street, and Simmons, of King-street, Covent-garden; Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor-place, and Mrs. Mason, of New Burlington-street, also made some of the principal costumes.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}</blockquote>The ''Lady's Pictorial''<nowiki/>'s "Our Irish Letter" of 26 June 1897 says,<blockquote>The Duchess of Devonshire’s fancy dress ball on July 2nd is arousing the very greatest interest in all circles. We hear a large number of the very beautiful costumes which will be worn at this dance are being made by Simmons's, the celebrated historical costumiers, 7 and 8, King-street, Covent Garden.<ref>"Our Irish Letter." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 26 June 1897, Saturday: 76 [of 92], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/18970626/139/0076. Print title same, p. 952.</ref></blockquote>On 3 July 1897, the day after the ball, the ''Belfast News-letter'' says,<blockquote>For weeks past all the leading London dressmakers and costumiers had been hard at work executing the orders for this great ball. At Alias Nathan's, Clarkson's, Auguste's, and Simmons' all hands set to with a will, and it is gratifying to know that the dresses entrusted to them more than held their own with those sent over from Paris.<ref name=":10">"The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram." ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9c [of 9]–6, Col. 1a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}}</blockquote> According to the ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'', citing the ''Daily Mail'', <blockquote> <p>Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear, while Worth also is making a great many costumes; but the greatest number are being made in England. The Duchess of Portland, the Duchess of Hamilton, Lady Mar and Kellie, and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]] are all going to the costumier in Soho-square, and Alias has also been summoned to Marlborough House for a consultation.</p> <p>Mr. Caryl Craven, who is so clever in such matters, is helping the Duchess of Leeds with her dress; in fact, everyone seems pressed into the service, and the result will be one of the most brilliant sights that ever was seen.<ref name=":11" == Notes and Questions == # Which costumier was this? "A well-known West End dressmaker booked for the Duchess of Devonshire's fancy dress ball orders representing £27000."<ref>"London Letter." ''Western Daily Press'' 15 July 1897, Thursday: 8 [of 8], Col. 7c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000264/18970715/146/0008.</ref></p></blockquote> == References == {{reflist}} 00jva53nce8mxyk92kdwfqzqzvhqh1f 0 305659 2816678 2816495 2026-06-24T13:23:13Z ~2026-36600-67 3096787 2816678 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. ==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ==== Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] bl59qyy4qgae6969fetccz8cx0zc0l3 2816679 2816678 2026-06-24T13:28:19Z Unitfreak 695864 2816679 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &ensp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &ensp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. ==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ==== Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] fn659fz8vwfs12kd6moy4gthbu63t17 2816680 2816679 2026-06-24T13:28:54Z Unitfreak 695864 2816680 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &ensp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &ensp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. ==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ==== Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 4ye08fyfsnik5bxlqf1kum96c6ujhnw 2816683 2816680 2026-06-24T13:29:37Z Unitfreak 695864 2816683 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. ==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ==== Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] fvcpq351m0fw21erbzj39t13xovndgh 2816684 2816683 2026-06-24T13:30:14Z Unitfreak 695864 2816684 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. ==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ==== Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 3v3gzem7xwii8e7859jg3zmyyaufwa0 2816694 2816684 2026-06-24T13:54:41Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Third Set */ 2816694 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|F000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> ==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ==== Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] s4wb5ufpe0cgfttkyuoswva5o329bz5 2816695 2816694 2026-06-24T13:57:18Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps */ 2816695 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Divisions == The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|F000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ozme4976uixb184fpg2ngstj3hj86iw 2816697 2816695 2026-06-24T14:08:21Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bully timestamp Divisions */ 2816697 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|F000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] p212qr82f2zkxa8gijbdwvrrelq0c54 2816700 2816697 2026-06-24T14:10:35Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bully timestamp Realization */ 2816700 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|F000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5ozx1npv82fozgppoaa3q0jf5qr00ip 2816709 2816700 2026-06-24T14:24:11Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Second Set */ 2816709 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|F000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] d3v28m4rn73yllkc4bnj4hz5spymeaf 2816710 2816709 2026-06-24T14:25:57Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Third Set */ 2816710 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] kfgwtep2fbyxa0lpq8asx347iqp57p1 2816713 2816710 2026-06-24T14:45:39Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816713 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Bully_Timestamp_Redshift_Plot_by_Age_of_Universe.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Bully_Timestamp_Redshift_Plot_by_Age_of_Universe.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 1sei1nn6u8eb3g4sjpn9gr1uvg4kz8s 2816714 2816713 2026-06-24T14:46:20Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816714 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Bully_Timestamp_Redshift_Plot_by_Age_of_Universe.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Bully_Timestamp_Redshift_Plot_by_Cosmic_Lookback_time.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] hynaa7jm3gctml3sik14junvlamx37i 2816717 2816714 2026-06-24T15:02:12Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816717 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Bully_Timestamp_Redshift_Plot_by_Cosmic_Lookback_time.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5lkmu9guv7lyiwvc4ep7swd9qnj5ns5 2816723 2816717 2026-06-24T15:06:39Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816723 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: === First Set === * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] rpx1fnb3mmdowgqg15if15zf4ioovp1 2816724 2816723 2026-06-24T15:31:05Z Unitfreak 695864 /* First Set */ 2816724 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> === Second Set === * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 2j1fjgmviqowp3nkdoqn7syk24wnnam 2816725 2816724 2026-06-24T15:31:35Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Second Set */ 2816725 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] === Third Set === * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ev3tur3es36vmopkvlb8twdo9letc8s 2816726 2816725 2026-06-24T15:32:07Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Third Set */ 2816726 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] syof74mj9qelrph96o0t4cxmk81dv0g 2816727 2816726 2026-06-24T15:33:42Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations */ 2816727 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] nekjxzwgpnpl7waqy4du8q5wk3ros8a 2816729 2816727 2026-06-24T15:36:39Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bully timestamp Realization */ 2816729 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Estimates time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 9wtd6h0yh5ngf5d47jpzzu42o9h0zjw 2816730 2816729 2026-06-24T15:39:15Z Unitfreak 695864 /* First Set */ 2816730 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Estimates cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] l90yrub97k3xqxgrq5up8nzon93e9tb 2816731 2816730 2026-06-24T15:40:19Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Second Set */ 2816731 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 7hlac2bft1knik78l6m6ed9yldtc2ks 2816732 2816731 2026-06-24T15:42:02Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Third Set */ 2816732 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] pti42i62zws3jtp7xpdfpu01wkgaspu 2816734 2816732 2026-06-24T15:49:51Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816734 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 59wl29dpbeimpkqwgklydxepu4h41oc 2816735 2816734 2026-06-24T15:53:56Z Unitfreak 695864 2816735 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] erkdour9pp3fjla6gjfnzqavnbo2vxt 2816742 2816735 2026-06-24T16:31:19Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816742 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown] ; and consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] can not be determined. This uncertainty in the age of the universe results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic. There is an overlap between Bully timestamps from the previously described first set and second set, and some time periods are redundantly covered by both sets of timestamps. However, the exact size of this "redundant" region is unknown. As shown in Figure 3 and in Figure 4 (at the bottom of the figure), timestamps 0000 0000 0000 through 1FFF FFFF FFFF are assumed by convention to be begin at the Big Bang, and measure time progressing forward, with each timestamp representing 3055 seconds of universal age. Also shown in Figure 3 and in Figure 4 (at the top of the figure), are timestamps 2000 0000 0000 through 8200 0000 0000 which measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp 8209 2800 0000 which corresponds with April. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] nsha21pawv4xut6e5qoxiq73g6ucwk6 2816743 2816742 2026-06-24T16:45:18Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816743 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown] ; and consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] can not be determined. This uncertainty in the age of the universe results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic. There is an overlap between Bully timestamps from the previously described first and second sets, and some time periods are redundantly covered by both sets of timestamps. However, the exact size of this "redundant" region is unknown. As shown in Figure 3 and in Figure 4 (at the bottom of the figure), timestamps 0000 0000 0000 through 1FFF FFFF FFFF are assumed by convention to be begin at the Big Bang, and measure time progressing forward, with each timestamp representing 3055 seconds of universal age. Also shown in Figure 3 and in Figure 4 (at the top of the figure), are timestamps 2000 0000 0000 through 8200 0000 0000 which measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp 8209 2800 0000. Since the age of the universe is unknown, then the exact relationship between Universal age and lookback time is also unknown. Figure 3 is plotted with against age whereas Figure 4 is plotted against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] dpsw3cpbw4jtl08nvyc6969wjor9xex 2816744 2816743 2026-06-24T16:46:57Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816744 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation using red-shift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown] ; and consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] can not be determined. This uncertainty in the age of the universe results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic. There is an overlap between Bully timestamps from the previously described first and second sets, and some time periods are redundantly covered by both sets of timestamps. However, the exact size of this "redundant" region is unknown. As shown in Figure 3 and in Figure 4 (at the bottom of the figure), timestamps 0000 0000 0000 through 1FFF FFFF FFFF are assumed by convention to be begin at the Big Bang, and measure time progressing forward, with each timestamp representing 3055 seconds of universal age. Also shown in Figure 3 and in Figure 4 (at the top of the figure), are timestamps 2000 0000 0000 through 8200 0000 0000 which measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp 8209 2800 0000. Since the age of the universe is unknown, then the exact relationship between Universal age and lookback time is also unknown. Figure 3 is plotted against age whereas Figure 4 is plotted against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5013s8t1gwq427pezn7rvpujhb4i18x 2816746 2816744 2026-06-24T16:54:39Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation using red-shift */ 2816746 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps `0000 0000 0000` through `1FFF FFFF FFFF` are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps `2000 0000 0000` through `8200 0000 0000` measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp `8209 2800 0000` (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|thumb|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|thumb|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2<sup>41</sup> Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5l267jkhwnk55cb0upjikoymzsr04si 2816747 2816746 2026-06-24T16:59:10Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Redshift */ 2816747 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10<sup>6</sup>) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps `0000 0000 0000` through `1FFF FFFF FFFF` are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps `2000 0000 0000` through `8200 0000 0000` measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp `8209 2800 0000` (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] qokh265nt2zp8pijnaipxsd75bhflj1 2816748 2816747 2026-06-24T17:00:49Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Redshift */ 2816748 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps '0000 0000 0000' through '1FFF FFFF FFFF' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps '2000 0000 0000' through '8200 0000 0000' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp '8209 2800 0000' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] d1cbh2uuo4dy5147duvei075nnvprjc 2816749 2816748 2026-06-24T17:02:12Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Redshift */ 2816749 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''0000 0000 0000'' through ''1FFF FFFF FFFF'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''2000 0000 0000'' through ''8200 0000 0000'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] tq6dg53vz5oqxwwhcz727ka7h47mzya 2816750 2816749 2026-06-24T17:03:11Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Redshift */ 2816750 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''2000 0000 0000'' through ''8200 0000 0000'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 0rapuex7ng0tw31tcbqy1c16lmm3yke 2816751 2816750 2026-06-24T17:04:24Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation Using Redshift */ 2816751 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] cjlkhnyoon8v4hxukjj19o3emk3gqhq 2816754 2816751 2026-06-24T18:29:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift */ 2816754 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] c3y6tsfscmbnr6bxoeqtwtqasdi82v6 2816755 2816754 2026-06-24T18:36:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Galactic year 65 */ 2816755 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Galactic Years and Weeks == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 9goaondmi7l5dz7h02v87m0apaldk3i 2816756 2816755 2026-06-24T18:37:24Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2816756 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] h4n1wq72260ycetb3b2w3yqgv6518h8 2816757 2816756 2026-06-24T18:39:22Z Unitfreak 695864 2816757 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] oebn6ddb948kkhkf1ucst77j4dl4c8l 2816758 2816757 2026-06-24T18:40:11Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Galactic year 65 */ 2816758 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] akzjinxk4wqgl9ju8t5a9jydw73rx6p 2816759 2816758 2026-06-24T18:40:33Z Unitfreak 695864 2816759 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] gmfd0velwfeiv811qqirusx9srrs3p1 2816763 2816759 2026-06-24T18:52:10Z Unitfreak 695864 2816763 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * Galactic Year 48 ** {{nowrap|5800 0000 0000} ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ifo1lnvlva5s462a3csqzirqcq6cs3k 2816764 2816763 2026-06-24T19:00:51Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2816764 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 46 ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ec43ihh39eclr9wqcboa7s3spmhtt3p 2816765 2816764 2026-06-24T19:01:36Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2816765 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 46 ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] lsw4diu7ih9xwygmwt5q4nq88lak6ny 2816766 2816765 2026-06-24T19:03:59Z Unitfreak 695864 2816766 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Galactic Year 46 ==== Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] hhb17epitd21bcb3f5g6vhtmml5vvif 2816767 2816766 2026-06-24T19:07:12Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2816767 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] qiosjhyvw0uvxqrnf5ijt903wwvvt06 2816768 2816767 2026-06-24T19:13:32Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Galactic Weeks */ 2816768 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] "Bully timestamps," with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> &thinsp; [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math>. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation and Cosmic Redshift === The exact value of the [https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/hubb_const.html Hubble constant is unknown]; consequently, the exact [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe age of the Universe] cannot be determined. This uncertainty in cosmic age results in a peculiar Bully timestamp characteristic: an overlap exists between timestamps from the first and second sets, causing some epochs to be redundantly covered. The exact boundaries of this redundant region remain unknown. As illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (bottom of figure), the forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are assumed by convention to begin at the Big Bang. Each increment represents 3055 seconds of universal age. Conversely, timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 2800 0000'' (top of figure). Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Figure 3 plots these values against cosmic age, whereas Figure 4 maps them against lookback time. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 3: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Galactic Calendar == A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 5). The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges. [[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]] Within the context of Bully timestamps, the "Bully" galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years). With this definition in mind, it is easy to convert between Bully timestamps and Bully Galactic years. The Hadean Eon, for example, began during approximate timestamp 5720 9000 0000 and ended with 5C2A 0000 0000. Thus the Hadean Eon lasted 2.5 Galactic years. * ''{{mono|5600 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|57FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 43 * ''{{mono|5800 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|59FF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 44 * ''{{mono|5A00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5BFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 45 * ''{{mono|5C00 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|5DFF FFFF FFFF}}'' ** Bully Galactic Year 46 ==== Bully Galactic year 65 ==== As shown in Figure 7, Bully Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Ecliptic and Galactic Plane. Galactic Year 65 will end 119 million years in the future during Bully timestamp 8300 0000 0000. [[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 7:]] === Galactic Weeks === A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. The following table (see Figure 6) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year "65" begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Bully Galactic Year 65 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Galactic <br /> Year 65 || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;” | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}} |} * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ==== The Metonic Cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 8''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 8''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 8''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 9''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 9: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 9''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 9''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 1303exwez9bpw0flq2vdrswd4f7kyfo 0 321771 2816674 2816471 2026-06-24T13:11:50Z Atcovi 276019 /* Development of mental asylums */ rewording 2816674 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} TBD == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western model<ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. [pull more info from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342354982_Development_of_civil_commitment_statutes_laws_of_involuntary_detention_and_treatment_in_Sri_Lanka_a_historical_review maybe?] === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...] Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] reported measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]", which were disrupted by the Boxing Day tsunami. Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature regarding the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health are limited and further research should be done in the field. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] 594962qvnn4mhfk4db9t7ummxx3s7hf 2816681 2816674 2026-06-24T13:29:08Z Atcovi 276019 /* 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami */ rewording 2816681 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} TBD == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western model<ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. [pull more info from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342354982_Development_of_civil_commitment_statutes_laws_of_involuntary_detention_and_treatment_in_Sri_Lanka_a_historical_review maybe?] === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...] Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature regarding the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health are limited and further research should be done in the field. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] nuavrenfia33oilk2l2p9wlthdy7y7c 2816686 2816681 2026-06-24T13:30:26Z Atcovi 276019 /* 2019 Easter Bombings */ rewording 2816686 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | last1 = Azeez | orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614 | first1 = Aaqib | last2 = | first2 = | last3 = | first3 = | last4 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | affiliation1 = Old Dominion University | correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | correspondence = email@address.com | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = This is a narrative review. }} TBD == Introduction == Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is "unknown", but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend. Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}</ref>. == Methods == [source selection process] ==Historical Development of Mental Health Services== In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western model<ref name=":0">Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}</ref>. [pull more info from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342354982_Development_of_civil_commitment_statutes_laws_of_involuntary_detention_and_treatment_in_Sri_Lanka_a_historical_review maybe?] === Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances === In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=125&lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}</ref>. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance "[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}</ref>. In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, "insane", was replaced with "of unsound mind". The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances<ref name=":3" />. === Development of mental asylums === At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London. ]] As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year<ref name=":0" />. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders. In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. === Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon === Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old<ref>{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}</ref>. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon<ref name=":1" />. In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of "a prison that is neglected and dilapidated"<ref name=":1" />. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%<ref name=":1" />. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports: <blockquote> The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie<ref name=":0" />.</blockquote>Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a "Visiting Committee". This committee was tasked to "meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations" to the Executive Committee of Health<ref name=":1" />. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be "costly" for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the "distortion" of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]<ref name=":1" />. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans. === Post-Mapother developments and further innovations === [[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. |right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}</ref>. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital<ref name=":0" />. In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}</ref>. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years<ref name=":4" />. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967<ref name=":5" />. After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country<ref name=":2" />. In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a "1:500,000 to 1000,000" ratio of psychiatrists to patients on "most occasions"<ref name=":0" />. === Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 === In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the "Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956"<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}</ref>. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as "lunacy" was replaced with "mental disease"<ref name=":6" />. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population<ref name=":5" />. === Developments from the 1990s === The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=101&lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva<ref name=":2" />. On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}</ref>. The policy also included a new position, the "Medical Officer of Mental Health", who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services<ref name=":0" />. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military<ref name=":8" />. In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9&Itemid=220&lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}</ref>. In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)<ref name=":7" />. === Modern-day Sri Lanka === [[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]] As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance<ref name=":7" />. Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers<ref name=":7" />. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...] Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing "decreased incomes"<ref>Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <nowiki>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919</nowiki></ref>. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]]. According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. == Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability & Natural Disasters == === Sri Lankan Civil War === The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}</ref>. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population<ref name=":5" />. In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a "sense of ‘learnt helplessness’"<ref name=":5" />. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to "combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones"<ref name=":9" />. [[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]] Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it<ref>See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].</ref>. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be "siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants", leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}</ref>. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a "community-based programme" which included "increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling". The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that "much more [than resettlement]" would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}</ref>. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. '''Post-war''' [[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]] The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}</ref>. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}</ref>. Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), "other depressive syndromes" (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were "considerably higher" than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}</ref>. Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}</ref>. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}</ref>. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health & Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}</ref>. About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}</ref>. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited "remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth" after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}</ref>. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited "extremely severe" symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Further research should be conducted in this field. In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that "probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder" were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that "screening and psychosocial intervention" were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami === The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26. The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage<ref name=":5" />. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka]. [[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]] A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}</ref>. Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with "[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD" post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a "large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people" seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that "more psychiatric disorders" would emerge due to "very little rebuilding [efforts]" and an apparent "unfairness in the aid system".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}</ref> At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were "not coordinated" due to poor "communication systems and road [conditions]." Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had "little" mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased "research" and adequate "provision[ing] and training of staff" in the long-term<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}</ref>. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments. In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring "above the cut-off for anxiety" and reporting more "somatic symptoms", though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}</ref>. === 2019 Easter Bombings === The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to "low-cost methodological" responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a "severe shortage" of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}</ref>. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed "doubts" in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for "culturally-sensitive" programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and "prolonged investigations" to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}</ref>. A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}</ref>. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be "made refugees again" after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was "unleashed online, in the law, and on the street"<ref>{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}</ref>. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted. === 2019-2024 Economic Crisis === The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis. Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}</ref>. Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a "clinical post-graduate career"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}</ref>. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income & 1/3 of participants exhibiting "clinical levels of psychological distress"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}</ref>. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly "general needs", while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near "twofold greater" rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}</ref>. The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. == Present-Day Challenges == === Ethnic tension === Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for "conflict transformation". A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to "hide in jungles" and consume "dirty water in drainage[s]" due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about "whether [he was] Sinhalese or not". Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts<ref>Jayathilaka, Aruna & Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66</ref>. Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. [[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]] Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that "[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom" in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for "disproportionately targeting religious minorities"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues. Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel. Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. === Poverty === It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}</ref>. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions<ref name=":8" />. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to "remain above 25 percent". Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}</ref>. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns. === Stigmas === Stigma consists of the "combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination."<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}</ref>. A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid "shame" and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were "violent" served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and "derogatory names" launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was "improving" in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by "spirits" can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results<ref name=":10" />. Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine. === Suicide Trends & Risk Factors === Suicide is defined as "the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome"<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}</ref>. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}</ref>. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}</ref>. From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates<ref name=":11" />. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures. The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}</ref>. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows<ref name=":12" />. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women. == Role of Religion == According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}</ref>. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life<ref name=":15" />. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}</ref>. Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}</ref>. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have "better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems" versus patients who weren't religious<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}</ref>. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and "make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}</ref>. === Buddhism === 27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the "center" of overall wellness, the "precondition for a successful life"<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}</ref>. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality "cannot be directly intervened" and can only be seen through "[interactions] with society"<ref name=":14" />. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being "unreachable", it can be "intervened", or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society<ref name=":14" />. One being "psychologically ill" can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through "lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives"<ref name=":14" />. The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists. In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}</ref>. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted. Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}</ref>. === Catholicism === Catholic counseling refers to "a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church"<ref name=":13">Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.</ref> and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of "personhood"<ref name=":13" />. The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on "[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation". Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where "hope" and "humility" are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience<ref name=":13" />. The general Christian call of "agape love and acceptance" is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness. Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the "spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion". Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating "psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity"<ref name=":13" />. As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka. === Islam === The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}</ref>. Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of "support and coping"<ref name=":15" />. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with "religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}</ref> Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}</ref>. === Hinduism === Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}</ref>. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}</ref>. === Comparative synthesis === Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress. In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures. == Future Outlook == Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients<ref name=":6" />. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were "outdated" and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous<ref name=":16" />. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to "bureaucratic processes" and a "lack of consensus", the draft has not been officially approved. These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}</ref>. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}</ref>. Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank. ===Competing interests=== No competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} [[Category:Mental health]] [[Category:Sri Lanka]] 5pvcnfi26nubdmh00krph54jpx3ej6a 0 322040 2816704 2814558 2026-06-24T14:16:46Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) */ 2816704 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} | [https://physwiki.eeyabo.net/index.php/Main_Page <small>Development <br/>Area</small>] |} [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future. Each Bully timestamp should be considered "realized" after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math> or better. === Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) === The below table (derived from the Wikipedia "Leap Second" article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972. For each leap second insertion, the below table lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been "realized" immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was "realized" immediately after the leap second insertion). A few details are worth noting in the table. The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 27FB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 2802 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. You will also note that Bully timestamps are realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero. The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Announced leap seconds to date |- ! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) |- ! 1972 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FB E7FB <br /> 8209 27FB E7FC <br /> 8209 27FB FC4F <br /> 8209 27FB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI <br /> 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI <br /> 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC <br /> 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC <br /> 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC |- ! 1973 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FC 24A2 <br /> 8209 27FC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC |- ! 1974 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FC 4CF4 <br /> 8209 27FC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC |- ! 1975 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FC 7547 <br /> 8209 27FC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC |- ! 1976 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FC 9DB6 <br /> 8209 27FC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC |- ! 1977 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FC C609 <br /> 8209 27FC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC |- ! 1978 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FC EE5C <br /> 8209 27FC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI <br /> 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC <br /> 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC |- ! 1979 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FD 16AE <br /> 8209 27FD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI <br /> 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC <br /> 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC |- ! 1981 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FD 531C <br /> 8209 27FD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC |- ! 1982 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FD 7B6F <br /> 8209 27FD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC |- ! 1983 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FD A3C2 <br /> 8209 27FD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC |- ! 1985 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FD F484 <br /> 8209 27FD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC |- ! 1987 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FE 597D <br /> 8209 27FE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC |- ! 1989 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FE AA3F <br /> 8209 27FE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC |- ! 1990 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FE D291 <br /> 8209 27FE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC |- ! 1992 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FF 0EFF <br /> 8209 27FF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI <br /> 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC <br /> 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC |- ! 1993 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FF 3752 <br /> 8209 27FF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI <br /> 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC <br /> 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC |- ! 1994 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FF 5FA5 <br /> 8209 27FF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC |- ! 1995 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 27FF 9C4B <br /> 8209 27FF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI <br /> 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC <br /> 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC |- ! 1997 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 27FF D8B9 <br /> 8209 27FF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC |- ! 1998 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 2800 1560 <br /> 8209 2800 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC |- ! 2005 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 2801 2FDC <br /> 8209 2801 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC |- ! 2008 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 2801 A8F0 <br /> 8209 2801 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC |- ! 2012 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 2802 3604 <br /> 8209 2802 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC |- ! 2015 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 2802 AEFC <br /> 8209 2802 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI <br /> 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC <br /> 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC |- ! 2016 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 2802 EBBF <br /> 8209 2802 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI <br /> 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC <br /> 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC |} === Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) === [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 2: Rubber Seconds]] Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the "rubber second" (see figure 2). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&nbsp;s step (0.05&nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed. As shown in figure 2, for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC "rubber seconds" meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}. The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&nbsp;s steps were needed (see figure 2). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972. At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC. By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC. The following table illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta |- ! Approximate Bully Timestamp <br /> Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) <br /> Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative <br /> Difference |- ! 8209 27F9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . . 8209 27F9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec |- ! 8209 27F9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . . 8209 27FA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . . 8209 27FA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . . 8209 27FA 406C (+621.8 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . . 8209 27FA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 27FA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 27FA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec |- ! 8209 27FA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . . 8209 27FA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec |- ! 8209 27FA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec |- ! 8209 27FA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . . 8209 27FA B980 (+2243.4 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec |- ! 8209 27FA B980 (+2243.5 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec |- ! 8209 27FA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . . 8209 27FA C005 (+1048.6 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec |- ! 8209 27FA C005 (+1048.7 sec) <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.717 sec |- ! 8209 27FA C005 (+1048.7 sec) . . . 8209 27FA CD7F (+2098.8 sec) <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.875 sec |- ! 8209 27FA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.975 sec |- ! 8209 27FA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) . . . 8209 27FA D459 (+429.0 sec) <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.080 sec || 4.055 sec |- ! 8209 27FA D459 (+429.1 sec) <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 4.155 sec |- ! 8209 27FA D459 (+429.1 sec) . . . 8209 27FA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 4.313 sec |- ! 8209 27FA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . . 8209 27FB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec |- ! 8209 27FB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec |- ! 8209 27FB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . . 8209 27FB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec |- ! 8209 27FB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI <br /> 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec |} k0ewxqca2ve4iovbcuy2tyzox0s7l1g 2 322151 2816753 2816526 2026-06-24T17:48:34Z ~2026-36638-59 3096831 /* 8.8.23 Premorpha Dynamics: A Unified Theory of Space, Time, Matter, Consciousness, and Cosmic Emergence – AI Rating Summary */ 2816753 wikitext text/x-wiki = '''Chapter 8: Methods, Tools, and AI-Assisted Evaluation''' = == '''8.1 Purpose''' == This chapter describes the methodological foundations of the project, including the role of AI in evaluating theories, how contributors interact with the system, and how assessments are recorded, displayed, and updated. == '''8.2 Toolchain and Workflow''' == AI tools like ChatGPT are used to analyze, compare, and refine theories Tables and frameworks are generated collaboratively using open formats Contributors submit input via email or editing suggestions Ratings and evaluations are dynamically updated based on ongoing analysis == '''8.3 AI-Based Rating System: Motivation and Procedure''' == To support comparative evaluation without personal or institutional bias, this project uses an AI-based rating system. ChatGPT acts as a neutral evaluator, analyzing each theory across clearly defined criteria in '''8.5 Understanding the Star Ratings'''. This system is designed to be: Transparent – Each rating is justified through AI’s large-scale reference analysis. Dynamic – Contributors may submit additional materials to request re-evaluation. Consistent – All evaluations are performed by the same AI logic, eliminating personal bias. Contributors may ask ChatGPT to re-read specific articles, datasets, or theoretical arguments. If new insights are found, ratings will be updated and transparently noted. This approach represents a shift toward evidence-driven, large-scale comparative review, using AI not as a gatekeeper but as a tool to synthesize and validate. == '''8.4 Open Participation''' == This chapter is also where future documentation of the workflow and collaborative mechanisms will be expanded. Users who submit theories are encouraged to: Describe their framework in terms of assumptions, predictions, and compatibility Suggest how their model could be tested or falsified Provide references or original materials for AI evaluation All analysis is open, and contributors may propose improvements at any time. == '''8.5 Understanding the Star Ratings''' == The AI Evaluation Table below rates theories across seven scientific criteria defined in '''Chapter 1.3'''. Here we provide a full explanation of what each criterion means and how it is applied. '''8.5.1. Empirical Adequacy''' Does the theory fit known observations and experimental data? High scores require support from astronomy, cosmology, geology, or lab-based physics. Theories that contradict established measurements or lack empirical grounding score lower. '''This also includes a consideration of the theory’s real-world or technological impact if its principles were applied.''' '''8.5.2. Internal Consistency''' Are the theory’s assumptions, mathematics, and logic self-coherent? A consistent theory does not contain contradictions, undefined steps, or ad hoc assumptions. '''Theories that preserve causal coherence—avoiding singularities, action at a distance, or arbitrary fields—are rated higher.''' Importantly, causal coherence applies within the framework of the theory itself. A theory does not need to explain the ultimate origin of existence, but it should not invoke paradoxical notions '''8.5.3. Predictive Power''' Does the theory make clear, testable predictions that distinguish it from others? Theories that anticipate new phenomena or retrodict known data gain higher ratings. '''8.5.4. Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' Is the theory consistent with findings from other scientific fields, such as geology, chemistry, biology, or planetary science? The more compatible it is, the higher the score. '''8.5.5. Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' Is the theory logically simple and intuitively understandable, without unnecessary complexity? This criterion rewards elegance, not oversimplification. '''8.5.6. Heuristic Value''' Does the theory stimulate new questions, research directions, or rethinking of existing problems? A high score reflects creative scientific potential. '''8.5.7. Historical and Philosophical Insight''' Does the theory connect meaningfully to the historical development of science or reflect philosophical depth? Theories grounded in tradition or conceptual evolution are valued here. '''8.5.8. Mathematical Rigor''' Does the theory provide clear mathematical formulations, derivations, and quantitative predictions? Theories are valued for their use of equations to express core principles, ensure internal consistency, and generate testable results. Each theory receives a rating from ★☆☆☆☆ to ★★★★★ per criterion. The total score (max 40) gives a general measure of its scientific coherence and reach. The reasoning behind the scores is available under each theory (subsection 8.8) or can be requested in more detail. === '''8.6 – Comparative Table of AI Ratings (Updated with Criterion 8: Mathematical Rigor)''' === ''Note: In July 2025, an eighth evaluation criterion was added: '''Mathematical Rigor'''. The total score is now out of 40 stars instead of 35. '' ''All ratings are expressed in whole stars (★), without fractional values, to ensure clarity in display and consistency with the visual format of this table.'' ''Theories are listed in the same order as in Section 8.8.'' {| class="wikitable" ! '''Theory''' !! '''EA''' !! '''IC''' !! '''PP''' !! '''CC''' !! '''CS''' !! '''HV''' !! '''HP''' !! '''MR''' !! '''Total (★/40)''' |- | '''8.8.1 General Relativity''' || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || '''37''' |- | '''8.8.2 Newtonian Gravity''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || '''33''' |- | '''8.8.3 MOND''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''26''' |- | '''8.8.4 Emergent Gravity''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''24''' |- | '''8.8.5 Big Bang''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''26''' |- | '''8.8.6 Steady State Theory''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''23''' |- | '''8.8.7 Big Crunch''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''22''' |- | '''8.8.8 Big Bounce''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''22''' |- | '''8.8.9 Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT)''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''33''' |- | '''8.8.10 Spiral Cosmology''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''21''' |- | '''8.8.11 Topological Field Framework''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''27''' |- | '''8.8.12 Conformal Gravity''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''28''' |- | '''8.8.13 Quasi-Steady State Cosmology''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''23''' |- | '''8.8.14 Dynamic Universe''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''30''' |- | '''8.8.15 Multiverse''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''23''' |- | '''8.8.16 Theory of Universality''' || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''16''' |- | '''8.8.17 Structured Loitering''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || '''16''' |- | '''8.8.18 Topological GeometroDynamics (TGD)''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''26''' |- |- | '''8.8.19 Emergence in Holographic Scenarios for Gravity''' || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ☆☆☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''26''' |- | '''8.8.20 Big Whisper Theory''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★☆☆☆☆ || '''27''' |- | '''8.8.21 Vibrational Theory''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || '''35''' |- |- | '''8.8.22 Kinetic Substrate Model''' || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || '''39''' |- |- | '''8.8.23 Premorpha Dynamics''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || '''27''' |- <!-- put an empty line here --> |} ''Legend:'' ''EA = Empirical Adequacy IC = Internal Consistency PP = Predictive Power CC = Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility '' ''CS = Conceptual Simplicity HV = Heuristic Value HP = Historical/Philosophical Insight MR = Mathematical Rigor'' ''Note:'' '''Reality Impact Factor''' is included under '''Empirical Adequacy''', and '''Causal Coherence''' under '''Internal Consistency''', to preserve the 8-criterion structure. == '''8.7 Requesting Detailed Justification''' == “Somebody” interested in the full motivation for a theory’s score—criterion by criterion—can obtain this by: 1. Visiting the '''discussion page''' of this Wikiversity chapter. 2. Mentioning the theory by name and explicitly asking for the detailed breakdown. 3. Receiving an AI-generated or authored comment elaborating why each star rating was assigned. These ratings are transparent and intended to support critical evaluation and ongoing refinement of both established and alternative cosmological theories. Constructive feedback, new data, or arguments may lead to adjustments in the scores, provided clear reasoning is presented. If a contributor or author does not agree with the evaluation or prefers not to have their theory represented under this framework, they may request that all related content and ratings for that theory be removed. This ensures that participation remains voluntary and respectful of intellectual ownership. '''Mainstream theories are subject to the same critical standard.''' If someone presents a reasoned objection to the current star ratings of a widely accepted theory (e.g. General Relativity, Big Bang), their explanation will be reviewed. If the argument is well-founded, ChatGPT may generate a revised evaluation. Both the original and alternative viewpoints can be documented transparently if needed. If you want to submit a '''Rating Rebuttal''', please use the template provided on the "Discuss" button here above. == '''8.8 Detailed Evaluations of Theories''' == This section will be expanded progressively as new theories are added. Each evaluation is generated in collaboration with ChatGPT, based on a standardized set of eight criteria defined in Chapter 1. This approach allows for clear, consistent, and rapid assessment of both mainstream and non-mainstream cosmological theories within minutes. === '''8.8.1 General Relativity – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity General Relativity] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Matches a wide range of observations: gravitational lensing, GPS corrections, perihelion precession, black hole dynamics, and gravitational waves. Supported by multiple experiments. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Highly consistent within its differential geometric framework. Built upon Einstein's field equations with tensor calculus. Few internal contradictions, though extensions (e.g. quantum gravity) face challenges. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Successfully predicted gravitational redshift, time dilation, frame-dragging, and gravitational waves. Continues to guide observations in astrophysics. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Compatible with cosmology and astrophysics. Some tension with quantum theory. Less integrated with planetary geology or biology. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Complex mathematical structure makes it less intuitive. Conceptually abstract (spacetime curvature, geodesics). Clarity improves with education, but simplicity is low. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspired vast developments in cosmology, black hole theory, and relativistic astrophysics. Foundation for modern gravitational physics. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Deep philosophical implications about space, time, and causality. Represents a major shift from Newtonian absolute space. Influenced 20th-century philosophy of science. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Built upon advanced mathematics: Riemannian geometry, Einstein field equations, tensor calculus. Equations are precise, formal, and deeply embedded in differential geometry. || ★★★★★ |} '''Total: 39/40''' --- === '''8.8.2 Newtonian Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Accurately describes gravitational interactions for most macroscopic systems (planets, satellites, projectiles) under low-speed, weak-field conditions. Deviates in extreme conditions (e.g. near black holes). || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent with inverse-square law and Newton's laws of motion. Assumes instantaneous action at a distance, which conflicts with relativity. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts planetary orbits, tides, escape velocities, and Keplerian motion. Fails for relativistic effects (e.g. Mercury’s precession, gravitational lensing). || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Well-integrated in classical mechanics, astronomy, and engineering. Less compatible with modern cosmology or relativistic frameworks. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Simple and intuitive: gravity as a force between masses. Easily grasped and widely taught. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspired centuries of scientific discovery and classical mechanics. Still used in teaching and engineering. Limited in modern theoretical development. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Founded classical physics. Major leap in scientific method and mathematical modeling. Paved the way for Enlightenment-era science. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Clear and elegant use of calculus and vector algebra (e.g. <math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}</math>). Highly accessible and historically groundbreaking, but lacks deeper geometric or relativistic structures. || ★★★★☆ |} '''Total: 33/40''' === '''8.8.3 MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Newtonian_dynamics Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Fits galactic rotation curves without invoking dark matter. Matches Tully-Fisher relation. Performance weakens at cluster and cosmological scales. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Original formulation is non-relativistic and phenomenological. Several relativistic extensions (e.g. TeVeS) exist but introduce complexity and fine-tuning. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts galaxy dynamics from baryonic matter alone. Less predictive at larger scales or in non-galactic contexts. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Primarily astrophysical. Some tension with cosmology, structure formation, and gravitational lensing. Not aligned with particle physics. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Simple at galactic scale: modifies acceleration below a threshold \(a_0\). Extensions are less intuitive. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Challenges dark matter paradigm and motivates alternate gravity models. Sparked theoretical and observational debate. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Offers a conceptual challenge to Newton/Einstein gravity. Philosophically provocative, but limited historical lineage. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs interpolating functions and modified Poisson equations. Relativistic extensions (e.g. TeVeS) involve tensor-vector-scalar frameworks. Rigorous in parts, but lacks unified formalism. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 28/40''' === '''8.8.4 Emergent Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropic_gravity Emergent / Entropic Gravity] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Attempts to account for galactic rotation without dark matter by linking gravity to entropy and information. Some results match MOND-like behavior, but broad observational support remains limited. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretical framework draws from thermodynamics, holography, and information theory. Conceptually coherent, but not fully developed as a unified physical model. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Offers qualitative insights but lacks precise predictive capabilities in most contexts. No wide adoption for simulations or system modeling. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Integrates ideas from black hole thermodynamics, quantum information, and spacetime geometry. Weak integration with observational astronomy or geology. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Abstract and speculative. Concepts like entropic forces and holographic screens are not intuitive for most readers. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates discussion about the nature of spacetime and gravity. Has inspired new theoretical directions in quantum gravity and information theory. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Philosophically intriguing: redefines gravity as emergent rather than fundamental. Links to ideas from Bekenstein and Hawking. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Relies on concepts from thermodynamics (e.g. entropy gradients), statistical mechanics, and quantum gravity. Uses integral relations and variational principles, but lacks a standardized set of equations for general use. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 26/40''' === 8.8.5 Big Bang Theory – AI Rating Summary=== ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang Big Bang Theory] See Talk Page (Discuss) for additional information about the rating. {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Explains redshift, CMB, and light-element abundances, but tension with galaxy formation, Hubble tension, and large-scale structure persists || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Internally consistent within ΛCDM and general relativity, but inflation and dark energy introduce ad hoc elements. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Predicted CMB, light elements, and cosmic redshift. Less successful on structure formation, galaxy rotation curves, and dark sector dynamics. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Supports astrophysics and high-energy particle physics, but lacks integration with geology, paleontology, or biological evolution. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Not intuitive: requires singularity, inflation, and dark entities. Conceptually complex and metaphysically opaque in origin and boundary conditions. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Drove cosmological and astrophysical research, but locked into a narrow framework limiting alternative cosmologies. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Provides a cosmic origin model but raises unresolved questions: what banged, why, and what came before? || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || ses GR, FLRW metrics, and quantum field assumptions. Inflationary dynamics lack unified mathematical formulation. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 26/40''' === '''8.8.6 Steady State Theory – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady_state_model Steady State Cosmology] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Early successes with radio‐source counts, but contradicted by the cosmic microwave background, evolving galaxy populations, and quasar statistics. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent within the “perfect cosmological principle,” requiring continuous matter creation at a fixed rate. Logical but invokes an ad-hoc creation field (C-field). || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Predicted constant large-scale density and specific radio‐source number counts; few successful novel predictions beyond its initial scope. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Limited overlap with modern astrophysics and particle physics; conflicts with nucleosynthesis and CMB observations. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Intuitively simple: Universe is homogeneous in space **and** time, avoiding an initial singularity. Minimal parameter set. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Historically spurred observational tests that ultimately favored Big Bang models; now mainly of pedagogical interest. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Embodies the perfect cosmological principle and continuous-creation idea, provoking debates on temporality and cosmological assumptions. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs Friedmann-like solutions with a creation term; uses relativistic field equations but lacks the richer formal development of ΛCDM or GR extensions. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 23/40''' === '''8.8.7 Big Crunch – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch Big Crunch] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Once considered viable if cosmic density exceeded the critical value. Current observations (accelerating expansion, dark energy) contradict its key assumptions. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretically consistent as a time-reversed Big Bang within general relativity. Requires high matter density and no (or reversing) dark energy. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts a decelerating expansion turning to collapse. Testable in principle, but not supported by current data. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Compatible with thermodynamic and relativistic models of entropy and time symmetry, but unsupported by astronomical data. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Intuitively mirrors Big Bang, offering closure and symmetry. Simple in concept, but difficult to reconcile with observed acceleration. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Motivated theoretical discussion on cosmological fate and cyclic models. Limited influence in current cosmology. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Explores cosmological temporality and finitude. Once a philosophically compelling counterbalance to eternal expansion. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Based on time-reversible solutions to Friedmann equations and relativistic cosmology. Rigorous within GR but not extended in modern frameworks. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 23/40''' === '''8.8.8 Big Bounce – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bounce Big Bounce] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || No direct observational evidence yet. Some loop quantum cosmology models suggest signatures in the CMB, but these remain speculative. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Offers a logically coherent alternative to singularity-based models. Dependent on quantum gravity frameworks (e.g. loop quantum gravity) that remain under development. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Provides potential testable differences in early universe structure and CMB fluctuations. Predictions are still uncertain and model-dependent. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges general relativity with quantum mechanics. Limited overlap with geology or observational astronomy. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Complex and abstract. The idea of a cyclical universe is conceptually appealing, but quantum corrections are not intuitive. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates exploration of singularity resolution and quantum gravity cosmologies. Encourages investigation of pre-Big Bang conditions. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Resonates with ancient cyclical cosmologies and philosophical ideas of eternal recurrence. Reframes the question of origins. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Based on extensions of Friedmann equations using loop quantum corrections or other quantum gravity approaches. Some models are mathematically formal, but the field is still unsettled. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 24/40''' === '''8.8.9 Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT) – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Ruud_Loeffen/Cosmic_Influx_Theory(3) Cosmic Influx Theory] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Strong match with observed planetary structuring, VRMS-based system modeling, and geological trends like daylength and expansion. Supported by exoplanet data and disk morphology (e.g. HD 163296). || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Equations and constants (e.g. κ₍CIT₎, (γ−1)/4π) are logically coherent. Internal derivations remain consistent across cosmological and planetary domains. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Offers specific predictions (e.g. Trappist-1 preferred distance and orbital period). Some predictions still await observational confirmation. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Integrates cosmology, geology, biology, and observational astronomy. Compatible with expanding Earth, daylength data, and ring formation physics. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Introduces new yet intuitive ideas like influx and preferred distances. Avoids abstract constructs like dark matter/energy. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires re-evaluation of mainstream assumptions, links to overlooked or discarded theories (e.g. Le Sage, expansion tectonics). || ★★★★★ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reconnects with early gravitational push models and continuous creation ideas, offering philosophical alternatives to entropy-based models. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Provides original equations (e.g. for <math>D_{\text{pref}}</math>, <math>G = \frac{\gamma - 1}{4\pi}</math>, <math>\kappa = \frac{v_{\text{RMS}}^2}{c^4}</math>) and consistent dimensional analysis. Excel-based datasets link math to observations. Lacks field-theoretic formalism. || ★★★★☆ |} '''Total: 33/40''' === '''8.8.10 Spiral Cosmology – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://www.academia.edu/103005946/Cosmology_as_Spiral_Evolution Spiral Cosmology on Academia.edu] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Offers visual and structural explanations for spiral galaxy morphology and cosmic rotation patterns. Less directly tied to quantitative data or tested predictions. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Conceptually consistent in proposing self-similar spiral evolution at multiple scales, but lacks a developed dynamic or energetic framework. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Suggests qualitative evolutionary stages and possible cyclic features, but does not provide specific numerical predictions. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Makes symbolic and philosophical connections across cosmology, biology, and culture. Scientific integration with physical fields is minimal. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Emphasizes intuitive and visual structures (e.g. spirals), which are accessible but may oversimplify physical complexity. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates reflection on cosmic structure, symmetry, and recursion. Encourages reinterpretation of known forms (e.g. galaxies, DNA, hurricanes). || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reconnects with ancient and Renaissance cosmologies linking form and function across scales. Offers metaphysical resonance. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Utilizes geometric symbolism (e.g. spiral ratios, golden mean) but lacks physical equations or dynamical systems modeling. No quantitative derivations. || ★★☆☆☆ |} '''Total: 23/40''' === '''8.8.11 Topological Field Framework – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/393122856_A_Topological_Field_Framework_for_Particle_Mass_Gauge_Interactions_and_Emergent_Gravity A Topological Field Framework on ResearchGate] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Proposes a geometric origin of particle properties and fundamental constants, but lacks direct comparison with observational or experimental datasets. Empirical testing is suggested but not yet demonstrated. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Builds a coherent and logically structured model grounded in topology and pressure gradients. Concepts are well integrated, with minimal contradictions. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Offers a pathway to derive constants such as G, c, and Λ from topology and boundary conditions. However, quantitative predictions are still under development or pending validation. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges gravitational theory, particle physics, and topology. Aligns with ideas in quantum geometry, though not yet embedded in mainstream formulations. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Dense but conceptually focused. Uses field and pressure analogies to unify gravity and gauge interactions, though the abstract nature may limit accessibility. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Provides an original and stimulating approach to unify physical constants via geometry. Encourages rethinking of foundational assumptions in physics. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Revives geometrical unification ideals from early 20th-century physics and connects them to modern field-based ontology. Philosophically grounded. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs differential geometry, topological mapping, and field pressure modeling. Mathematical structure is present, but derivations are at a conceptual stage. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 27/40''' === '''8.8.12 Conformal Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989ApJ...342..635M Exact Vacuum Solution to Conformal Weyl Gravity and Galactic Rotation Curves] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Successfully models galactic rotation curves and lensing effects without invoking dark matter. However, challenges remain regarding early-universe phenomena and the CMB. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent within its conformal symmetry framework. Gravitational dynamics are derived cleanly from a fourth-order field equation. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Accurately predicts galaxy-scale observations. However, extrapolations to cosmological scales require further development and empirical testing. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Intersects with quantum field theory through conformal invariance and offers alternatives to ΛCDM. Limited overlap with standard model particle physics. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Builds from a well-defined symmetry principle (conformal invariance). Some complexity arises due to fourth-order derivatives and unfamiliar constructs. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Encourages reconsideration of gravitational assumptions and dark matter. Inspires new theoretical directions and alternative metrics. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Connects with earlier Weyl geometry and symmetry-based models. Philosophically significant as a symmetry-driven alternative to general relativity. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs rigorous derivations based on conformal symmetry and higher-order field equations. Technically sophisticated. || ★★★★☆ |} '''Total: 28/40''' === '''8.8.13 Quasi-Steady State Cosmology (QSSC) – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/pram/053/06/1093-1104 The Quasi-Steady State Cosmology: Theory and Observations – Pramana Journal] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Offers explanations for redshift, large-scale structure, and quasar distributions. However, it faces difficulties matching the observed CMB spectrum and primordial element abundances. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretical foundations are logically constructed around a C-field and creation events. Internally coherent but relies on non-standard mechanisms not universally accepted. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Makes unique predictions about cosmic cycles, matter creation, and galaxy evolution. Some predictions remain qualitative or are difficult to test. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Attempts to integrate cosmology with continuous creation physics. However, the C-field concept is not aligned with standard field theory or particle physics. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Proposes an intuitive cyclical model of cosmic evolution. Some components, such as the C-field, are abstract and complex to formalize. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Offers a provocative alternative to the Big Bang. Stimulates re-evaluation of singularity-based models and encourages cyclic interpretations. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Extends the steady-state philosophy of Hoyle. Challenges the singular origin narrative with philosophical depth and continuity. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Uses mathematical models for cyclic expansion and C-field dynamics. However, these are not widely adopted or fully developed in mainstream literature. || ★★☆☆☆ |} '''Total: 23/40''' === '''8.8.14 Dynamic Universe (Tuomo Suntola) – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://physicsfoundations.org/suntola/dynamic-universe Dynamic Universe – Physics Foundations Society] ''Additional source:'' [https://www.academia.edu/37149633/The_Dynamic_Universe_Toward_a_unified_picture_of_physical_reality The Dynamic Universe on Academia.edu] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Provides testable predictions for cosmological redshift, Hubble parameter, and time dilation without invoking dark energy. Several predictions align well with observational data, though not yet widely confirmed. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || The model is highly self-consistent, based on a single zero-energy principle and evolving 4-sphere geometry. Internally coherent and logically derived. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts cosmological parameters from first principles, including a time-evolving H₀ and expansion behavior. Some predictions differ from ΛCDM but remain observationally accessible. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Attempts unification of relativity, cosmology, and quantum phenomena under a geometric framework. Still under integration with conventional physics models. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Built on a single geometric principle with minimal assumptions. Clear in its physical logic, though unfamiliar to those trained in standard GR or QFT. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires a rethinking of time, space, and energy conservation. Offers a conceptually elegant reformulation of cosmic dynamics. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Echoes Machian ideas and Einstein’s early search for balance models. Challenges the notion of spacetime curvature as fundamental. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs rigorous geometric derivations and differential equations. Mathematical structure is well-developed, though outside conventional formalisms. || ★★★★☆ |} '''Total: 30/40''' === '''8.8.15 Multiverse Theory – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse Multiverse – Wikipedia] ''Additional source:'' [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-the-multiverse-really-exist/ Scientific American – Does the Multiverse Really Exist?] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Lacks direct observational support. No known experiment can confirm or refute the existence of other universes. Some indirect inferences arise from inflationary models or quantum theory, but none are conclusive. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Varies by formulation. Quantum Many-Worlds, eternal inflation, and string theory landscapes are logically coherent within their frameworks, but depend on assumptions not testable in this universe. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Extremely weak. Most formulations make no concrete predictions for our universe that differ from single-universe models. Some argue it "predicts" everything, making it unfalsifiable. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Connects to quantum theory, inflationary cosmology, string theory, and philosophy. However, lacks integration with empirical fields like astronomy, geology, or planetary science. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Conceptually speculative and often confusing. Raises questions about what counts as "real" and how probability works across unobservable universes. Not parsimonious. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || High inspiration in theoretical physics and cosmology. Stimulates debate on fine-tuning, origins, and the limits of science. Has generated many models and new lines of thought. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reflects an evolution of thinking about cosmological plurality. Raises deep metaphysical questions about causality, determinism, and reality. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Strong in some versions (e.g. string theory landscapes, quantum branches), but speculative assumptions extend beyond tested mathematics. || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 23/40''' === '''8.8.16 Theory of Universality – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Primary source:'' [https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jap/papers/Vol11-issue2/Series-3/D1102031953.pdf K.S. Narayana – Theory of Universality (IOSR-JAP, 2019)] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Some known constants (e.g. Hubble parameter, proton lifetime) are reproduced numerically, but without grounding in observational datasets or statistical validation. No empirical testing methodology is provided. || ★☆☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || The derivations follow internal logic, but some assumptions—like matter exceeding light speed or redefining constants—conflict with established physics and dimensional coherence. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || No distinct or testable predictions are formulated. The theory remains mostly retrospective in deriving values, not prospective in forecasting new results. || ★☆☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Conflicts with key principles in general relativity, quantum theory, and thermodynamics. It does not integrate with empirical fields or build bridges across scientific domains. || ★☆☆☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || The theory aims at unification but uses complex constructs with speculative interpretations. Lacks parsimony and clear explanatory logic. || ★★☆☆☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires rethinking of fundamental constants and offers alternative pathways to explore force unification. Useful for stimulating discussion despite lack of empirical grounding. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Emphasizes classical ideals of universal unity. Raises metaphysical questions about origins and physical laws. Philosophically bold, though scientifically unorthodox. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Includes numerous equations and derivations, but lacks clarity in notation, dimensional checks, and formal structure. Relies on fitting numerical coincidences. || ★★☆☆☆ |} '''Total: 16/40''' === '''8.8.18 Topological GeometroDynamics (TGD) – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Primary sources:'' [https://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/TGD2024I.pdf] [https://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/TGD2024II.pdf] <table class="wikitable"> <tr> <th>'''Criterion'''</th> <th>'''Description'''</th> <th>'''Rating'''</th> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Empirical Adequacy'''</td> <td>TGD is rich in theoretical proposals—such as predictions about coupling constants, p-adic physics, and quantized criticality—but lacks direct empirical validation. Claims are often qualitative or philosophical, with few testable predictions implemented or tested.</td> <td>★★☆☆☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Internal Consistency'''</td> <td>The theory presents a highly consistent internal structure based on an 8-dimensional embedding space (M⁴ × CP₂), number theory, and a unified view of interactions. The coherence across domains (cosmology, quantum physics, biology) is impressive.</td> <td>★★★★☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Predictive Power'''</td> <td>TGD makes bold theoretical predictions about particle masses, cosmological evolution, and even consciousness; however, these are often indirect, qualitative, or mathematically untested in standard frameworks.</td> <td>★★☆☆☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility'''</td> <td>Integrates gravitation, particle physics, cosmology, biology, and neuroscience under a single geometric and number-theoretical framework. Strong interdisciplinary ambition, though not well integrated with conventional theories in these domains.</td> <td>★★★★☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity'''</td> <td>Conceptually intricate and difficult for non-specialists. TGD proposes radically new metaphysical and mathematical foundations that are not easily intuitive or accessible.</td> <td>★★☆☆☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Heuristic Value'''</td> <td>Inspires novel questions about the unification of forces, the role of number theory, and consciousness in physics. Has stimulated a wide body of internal development and speculative exploration.</td> <td>★★★★☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Historical and Philosophical Insight'''</td> <td>Offers a deep philosophical stance on geometry, consciousness, time, and mathematical existence. Rich in insight about foundational structures and conceptual shifts in physics.</td> <td>★★★★☆</td> </tr> <tr> <td>'''Mathematical Rigor'''</td> <td>Employs advanced mathematics: higher-dimensional manifolds, p-adics, number theory, and embedding techniques. Formal structure is evident but not presented using conventional field-theoretic rigor or peer-reviewed derivations.</td> <td>★★★★☆</td> </tr> </table> '''Total: 26/40''' === '''8.8.19 Emergence in Holographic Scenarios for Gravity. AI Rating Summary'''=== ''Related link:'' https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1501.04278 {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || The paper explores conceptual frameworks (AdS/CFT, Verlinde’s entropic gravity) grounded in mathematically consistent formulations, but lacks direct empirical evidence. The authors acknowledge that these are interpretative models with no experimental confirmation yet. || ☆★☆☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || The arguments are logically coherent, well-structured, and reflect a clear understanding of dualities and emergence. The comparison of exact vs approximate duality is internally consistent and philosophically careful.|| ★★★★★ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || The paper itself does not propose novel testable predictions. Verlinde’s approach, while promising, remains qualitatively suggestive rather than quantitatively predictive in this context. The AdS/CFT discussion is framed mostly in conceptual terms.|| ☆☆☆☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Strong interdisciplinary approach: integrates quantum gravity, thermodynamics, information theory, and philosophy of science. The renormalization group, entropy, and coarse-graining are applied beyond physics into conceptual analysis. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Despite complexity, the authors strive for conceptual clarity—especially in distinguishing duality, emergence, and fundamentality. The simplification of Verlinde's proposal using thermodynamics is notably clear. ||★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Very high: the paper reframes holography and gravity in emergent terms, which inspires alternative perspectives and has influenced many researchers. It facilitates new approaches like entropic gravity and bulk/boundary reinterpretation|| ★★★★★ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Outstanding. The paper provides an insightful discussion of the evolution of the holographic principle, AdS/CFT duality, and Verlinde’s entropic gravity. Strong engagement with philosophy of emergence and reduction. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || While based on mathematically rigorous sources (e.g., AdS/CFT correspondence), the article itself is not a formal mathematical exposition. It leans more on conceptual and philosophical clarity than detailed derivations || ★★★☆☆ |} '''Total: 26/40''' === '''8.8.20 The Big Whisper Theory – AI Rating Summary'''=== ''Related link:'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394407414_Big_Whisper_Theory_for_Ai_Review Big Whisper Theory for AI Review] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Explains early galaxy formation and spiral arm dynamics well. Lacks empirical confirmation for predictions like Venusian life and structural layering. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || Maintains a coherent structural logic using separation and damaged energy. Some analogies and terminology could be clarified further. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Offers original predictions on matter behavior and galactic motion, but lacks mathematical formulation or falsifiable tests. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges concepts from cosmology, particle physics, and philosophy, but not well integrated into established theoretical or experimental science. || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Rich analogies aid understanding, but dense explanations and reversed perspectives make accessibility difficult. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires reevaluation of structure, force blending, and inverted modeling. High potential for conceptual innovation. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Highlights structural errors in mainstream views. Uses Gödel and linguistic analysis to reframe foundational assumptions. || ★★★★★ |- |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Offers philosophical critique of mathematical tools and singularities, but lacks any equations, derivations, or formalism required for scientific validation. || ★☆☆☆☆ |} '''Total: 27/40''' === '''8.8.21 Vibrational Theory – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://independent.academia.edu/CarlGrimes23 Vibrational Theory by Carl Grimes] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || VT offers testable predictions from its Python model (e.g., void growth, gravitational wells). It is consistent with large-scale structure and some galactic behaviors, but awaits broad observational cross-validation. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || VT is built from first principles with a mathematically structured field framework and harmonic logic. Its modules (DE, DM, consciousness, time) interlock coherently. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || The Python model simulates black hole dynamics, void formation, field collapse, and consciousness-linked evolution — going well beyond curve-fitting. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || VT integrates physics, consciousness, and cosmology. While this broadens its scope, it introduces tensions with established domains (e.g. quantum field theory, GR). || ★★★☆☆ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || While ambitious and elegant in parts, VT is highly layered and mathematically dense, which may hinder accessibility for general researchers. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || VT inspires rethinking of time, gravity, consciousness, and black holes from a unified vibrational field basis. It is a major conceptual departure. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || VT challenges metaphysical assumptions of Big Bang cosmology and connects physical processes with epistemic frameworks — including scaling critique. || ★★★★☆ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || The three submitted Python modules show internal consistency, symbolic integration, and numerical resolution of coupled field equations (Ψ, φ_DM). || ★★★★★ |} === '''8.8.22 The Kinetic Substrate Model (KSM V4) – AI Rating Summary''' === ''Related link:'' [https://www.academia.edu/144897760/Remembering_a_Forgotten_Past_the_Quest_for_the_Theory_of_Everything_The_Kinetic_Substrate_Model ] {| class="wikitable" ! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating''' |- | '''Empirical Adequacy''' || The October 2025 edition expands empirical anchors with quantitative examples: planetary internal heat fluxes (Neptune, Saturn), supernova Ia redshift fits (R² ≈ 0.985), and laboratory-scale implications for photon dispersion and density-dependent G variation. These reinforce the model’s exponential-attenuation law as a unifying description from lab to cosmic scale. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Internal Consistency''' || The revised edition eliminates prior ambiguities by formalizing the momentum-flux tensor and dimensional checks at every stage. The causal chain—substrate flux → field stress → macro-phenomena—remains logically unbroken. No circular reasoning or undefined constants remain. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Predictive Power''' || Explicit falsifiable predictions include: • A logarithmic redshift–distance law 𝐷 = ( 𝑐 / 𝐻 ) ln ⁡ ( 1 + 𝑧 ) D=(c/H)ln(1+z). • Finite-healing-length γ-ray dispersion measurable in burst timing. • Subtle, geometry-linked variability of G. • Exponential attenuation replacing GR singularities. Each prediction is numerically defined and observationally accessible. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || KSM aligns with superfluid and condensed-matter analogues (BEC hydrodynamics, vortex knots), geophysical heat-flow data, and cosmological energy-balance principles. Its momentum-transport equations could extend naturally into plasma, atmospheric, and nuclear domains. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || All physical effects derive from one postulate: a quantized, compressible kinetic substrate. The narrative and diagrams in this edition make the mechanism intuitively clear while preserving depth. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Heuristic Value''' || The text suggests avenues in gravito-acoustics, photon transport, substrate density mapping, and re-evaluation of cosmic expansion. Its unified transport model provokes re-examination of field theory and vacuum structure across disciplines. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || The October 2025 edition deepens historical integration, restoring the lineage from Fatio → Kelvin → Maxwell → Whittaker → BEC physics. Philosophically, it re-centers causality and continuity in natural law, bridging classical realism and quantum formalism. || ★★★★★ |- | '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Transport equations are consistently derived from first principles; new appendices provide complete tensor relations and unit analyses. Boundary-condition treatments are explicit and verifiable. || ★★★★☆ |} '''Total: 39/40''' === 8.8.23 Premorpha Dynamics: A Unified Theory of Space, Time, Matter, Consciousness, and Cosmic Emergence – AI Rating Summary [Basim AHMAD] === '''<nowiki>''</nowiki>Related link:''' https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.32533008 {| class="wikitable" !'''Criterion''' !'''Description''' !'''Rating''' |- |'''Empirical Adequacy''' |Proposes numerous experiments and predictions, but no experimental confirmations yet. Most claims remain unverified and require empirical testing. |★★☆☆☆ |- |'''Internal Consistency''' |Concepts such as Premorpha Field, I-Morph Energy, Field Locks, Gravity Compression, and Luxa Flare are applied consistently throughout the framework. |★★★★★ |- |'''Mathematical Rigor''' |Introduces symbolic equations and conceptual relationships, but lacks derivations, dimensional analysis, predictive calculations, and quantitative validation. |★★☆☆☆ |- |'''Explanatory Power''' |Attempts to explain matter, gravity, light, inertia, consciousness, cosmology, wormholes, and biological phenomena within a single framework. |★★★★☆ |- |'''Simplicity & Parsimony''' |Uses a unified-field approach but introduces several new entities and concepts (Premorpha, I-Morph, Luxa, Field Locks), reducing overall simplicity. |★★★☆☆ |- |'''Compatibility''' |Significantly departs from General Relativity, Quantum Field Theory, the Standard Model, and conventional cosmology without yet reproducing their quantitative successes. |★★☆☆☆ |- |'''Originality''' |Highly original framework. Concepts such as Luxa Flare cosmology, frequency-based universes, and consciousness-field coupling are novel and imaginative. |★★★★★ |- |'''Future Potential''' |Provides numerous test proposals and technological visions, including field medicine, propulsion, teleportation, and unified field engineering. |★★★★☆ |- | | |'''Total: 27 / 40''' |} == '''8.9 Proposed theories that will be evaluated soon''' == none '''◀ [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories/Chapter_7:_Cosmological_Parameters_and_Universal_Constants|Previous]] | [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories|Main Page]] | [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories/Chapter_9:_Documentation_and_Transparency|Next ▶]]''' pdknzud27tt6voqbdcznjnrgn44dcfx 0 323793 2816752 2744226 2026-06-24T17:32:04Z Juandev 2651 /* Früchte – Fruits */ update 2816752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{non-formal education}}{{languages}}{{0% done}}{{German}} == Words/Phrases == === {{Inline audio|De-Grüße.ogg|Grüße}} – Greetings === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronanciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo |{{Inline audio|De-Hallo.ogg}} |Hello | |- |Hi |{{Inline audio|De-hi.ogg}} |Hi |informal |- |Hey |{{Inline audio|De-hey.ogg}} |Hey |Informal, mostly among friends |- |Guten Tag |{{Inline audio|De-guten Tag2.ogg}} |Good day |Polite, formal |- |Tag |{{Inline audio|De-Tag2.ogg}} |day |colloquially |- |Guten Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-guten Morgen2.ogg}} |Good morning |Until 11 a.m. |- |Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-Morgen2.ogg}} |Morning |colloquially |- |Guten Mittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good noon |Rarely used, mostly literal |- |Guten Nachmittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good afternoon |Rarely used |- |Guten Abend |{{Inline audio|De-guten Abend.ogg}} |Good evening |From 6 p.m. |- |N‘Abend! | |evening |colloquially, Northern Germany |- |Servus |{{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}} |Hello / Hi |Informal, used in southern Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland |- |Grüß dich |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Informal, friendly |- |Grüß Gott |{{Inline audio|De-grüß Gott.ogg}} |Greetings / God bless you |Southern Germany, Austria, Bavaria; formal or informal |- |Moin |{{Inline audio|De-moin.ogg}} |Hi / Hello |Northern Germany, any time of day |- |Na? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hey? / What’s up? |Informal, very casual |- |Wie geht’s? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht’s.ogg}} |How are you? |Informal |- |Wie geht es Ihnen? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht es Ihnen.ogg}} |How are you? |Formal |- |Alles klar? |{{Inline audio|}} |All good? / Everything okay? |Informal |- |Was geht? |{{Inline audio|}} |What’s up? |Informal, youth slang |- |Was machst du? |{{Inline audio|}} |What are you doing? | |- |Lange nicht gesehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Long time no see! | |- |Schön dich zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Informal |- |Schön Sie zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Formal |- |Willkommen! |{{Inline audio|De-willkommen.ogg}} |Welcome! | |- |Herzlich willkommen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Warm welcome! |Formal, polite |- |Grüezi |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Switzerland |} === {{Inline audio|De-Abschiede.ogg|Abschiede}} – Farewells === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German !! Pronunciation !! English !! Use/Notes |- | Auf Wiedersehen || {{Inline audio|De-auf Wiedersehen.oga}}||Goodbye || Formal |- | Auf Wiederschauen || {{Inline audio|}}||Goodbye || Formal, mostly in Bavaria and Austria. |- | Tschüss || {{Inline audio|De-tschüs2.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, very common |- | Tschö || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal, mainly in Cologne and Rhineland. |- |Tschüssi! || {{Inline audio|}} || Byee || inoformal, eastern Germany |- | Ciao || {{Inline audio|De-ciao.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, popular among youth. |- | Bye || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal |- | Servus || {{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southern Germany, Austria |- | Ade || {{Inline audio|De-Ade.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southwestern Germany and Switzerland. |- | Grüezi || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye/Hello || Informal, Swiss German |- | Mach’s gut || {{Inline audio|De-mach's gut.ogg}}||Take care || Informal |- | Machen Sie’s gut || {{Inline audio|}}||Take care || Formal |- | Bis bald || {{Inline audio|De-bis bald.ogg}}||See you soon || |- | Bis später || {{Inline audio|}}||See you later || When meeting later the same day. |- | Bis gleich || {{Inline audio|}}||See you in a bit || When meeting again very soon. |- | Bis dann || {{Inline audio|De-bis dann.ogg}}||See you then || Casual, used when a meeting is arranged. |- | Bis morgen || {{Inline audio|}}||See you tomorrow || |- | Wir sehen uns || {{Inline audio|}} ||See you || Casual and friendly. |- | Gute Nacht || {{Inline audio|De-Gute Nacht.ogg}}||Good night || |- | Schönen Tag noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice day || |- | Schönen Abend noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice evening || |- | Schönes Wochenende || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice weekend || |- | Frohe Feiertage || {{Inline audio|}}||Happy holidays || |} === Ich spreche kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es. – I don't speak German, but I'm learning it. === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Sprechen Sie bitte Englisch? | {{Inline audio|}} | Do you speak English, please? | |- | Ich spreche kein Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|De-Ich spreche kein Deutsch..ogg}} | I don't speak German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am learning German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch, aber ich weiß noch nicht viel. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German, but I don't know much yet. | |- | Könnten Sie bitte langsamer sprechen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Could you speak more slowly, please? | |- | Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you repeat that again? | |- | Können Sie das buchstabieren? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you spell it? | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. Ich würde Ihr Feedback schätzen. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German. I'd appreciate your feedback. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Ich heiße ....ogg|Ich heiße}} – My name is === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Jan Lochman. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is Jan Lochman. | |- |Können Sie das buchstabieren? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you spell it? | |- |Julius-Anton-Nordpol-Leerzeichen-Ludwig-Otto-Charlotte-Martha-Anton-Nordpol |{{Inline audio|}} |j-a-n-space-l-o-c-h-m-a-n | |- |Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you repeat that again? | |- |Wie heißt du? |{{Inline audio|De-Wie heißt du?.ogg}} |What is your name? | |- |Johanna |{{Inline audio|De-Johanna.ogg}} |Jane | |- |Georg |{{Inline audio|De-Georg2.ogg}} |George | |- |Maria |{{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} |Mary | |- |Johann |{{Inline audio|De-Johann.ogg}} |John | |- |Eva |{{Inline audio|De-Eva.ogg}} |Eve | |- |Peter |{{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} |Peter | |- |Hanna |{{Inline audio|}} |Hanna | |- |Anna |{{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} |Anne | |- |Paul |{{Inline audio|De-Paul.ogg}} |Paul | |} === Die häufigsten deutschen Namen – Most common German names === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | Michael | {{Inline audio|De-Michael.ogg}} | Michael | |- | Thomas | {{Inline audio|De-Thomas.ogg}} | Thomas | |- | Andreas | {{Inline audio|De-Andreas.ogg}} | Andrew | |- | Stefan | {{Inline audio|De-Stefan.ogg}} | Stephen | |- | Peter | {{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} | Peter | |- | Wolfgang | {{Inline audio|De-Wolfgang.ogg}} | Wolfgang | |- | Hans | {{Inline audio|De-Hans.ogg}} | John | |- | Klaus | {{Inline audio|De-Klaus.ogg}} | Claus / Nicholas | |- | Karl | {{Inline audio|De-Karl.ogg}} | Charles | |- | Heinz | {{Inline audio|De-Heinz.ogg}} | Henry | |- | Johannes | {{Inline audio|De-Johannes.ogg}} | John | |- | Martin | {{Inline audio|De-Martin.ogg}} | Martin | |- | Matthias | {{Inline audio|De-Matthias.ogg}} | Matthew | |- | Christian | {{Inline audio|De-Christian.ogg}} | Christian | |- | Josef | {{Inline audio|De-Josef.ogg}} | Joseph | |- | Franz | {{Inline audio|De-Franz.ogg}} | Francis | |- | Dieter | {{Inline audio|De-Dieter.ogg}} | Dieter / Derek | |- | Jürgen | {{Inline audio|De-Jürgen.ogg}} | George | |- | Uwe | {{Inline audio|De-Uwe.ogg}} | Hugh | |- | Günter | {{Inline audio|De-Günter.ogg}} | Gunther | |- | Anna | {{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} | Anna / Anne | |- | Maria | {{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} | Mary | |- | Emma | {{Inline audio|De-Emma.ogg}} | Emma | |- | Elisabeth | {{Inline audio|De-Elisabeth.ogg}} | Elizabeth | |- | Katharina | {{Inline audio|De-Katharina2.ogg}} | Catherine / Katherine | |- | Barbara | {{Inline audio|De-Barbara.ogg}} | Barbara | |- | Sabine | {{Inline audio|De-Sabine.ogg}} | Sabina | |- | Claudia | {{Inline audio|De-Claudia.ogg}} | Claudia | |- | Monika | {{Inline audio|De-Monika.ogg}} | Monica | |- | Julia | {{Inline audio|De-Julia.ogg}} | Julia | |- | Christina | {{Inline audio|De-Christina.ogg}} | Christina / Christine | |- | Angelika | {{Inline audio|De-Angelika.ogg}} | Angelica | |- | Susanne | {{Inline audio|De-Susanne.ogg}} | Susan / Suzanne | |- | Ursula | {{Inline audio|De-Ursula.ogg}} | Ursula | |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mir geht es gut. Übers Wochenende war ich bei meiner Großmutter in Westböhmen. Am Samstag besuchten wir das bayerische Städtchen Cham, wo wir uns das Zentrum ansahen und ein paar Fotos machten. Am Sonntag arbeiteten wir im Garten, pflückten Birnen und sammelten heruntergefallene Äpfel und Nüsse. Am Nachmittag besuchten wir das Jagdschloss Diana bei Rozvadov. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am fine. I was at my grandmother's in West Bohemia over the weekend. On Saturday, we visited the Bavarian town of Cham, where we looked around the center and took a few photos. On Sunday, we worked in the garden, picking pears and collecting fallen apples and nuts. In the afternoon, we visited the Diana hunting lodge near Rozvadov. | |} === Sich vorstellen – Introducing yourself === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Hans. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is John. | |- |Ich bin ein Tscheche aus Prag. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Czech from Prague. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am Spanish. | |- |Ich komme aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am from Granada. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Spanish from Granda. | |- |Ich bin ein Pole aus Breslau. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Pole from Wrocław. | |- |Ich spreche Englisch, Spanisch und ein wenig Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I speak English, Spanish and a little German. | |- |Ich spreche noch kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't speak German yet, but I'm learning? | |- |Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|De-Sprechen Sie Englisch.oga}} |Do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht. Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht, ich spreche kein Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, I don't speak German. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Alphabet.ogg|Alphabet}} – Alphabet === {{Inline audio|German alphabet-2.ogg|A – B – C – D – E – F – G – H – I – J – K – L – M – N – O – P – Q – R – S – T – U – V – W – X – Y – Z}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-a.ogg|A}} | {{Inline audio|De-B.ogg|B}} | {{Inline audio|De-C.ogg|C}} | {{Inline audio|De-D.ogg|D}} | {{Inline audio|De-e.ogg|E}} | {{Inline audio|De-f.ogg|F}} | {{Inline audio|De-g.ogg|G}} | {{Inline audio|De-h.ogg|H}} | {{Inline audio|De-i.ogg|I}} | {{Inline audio|De-j.ogg|J}} | {{Inline audio|De-k.ogg|K}} | {{Inline audio|De-l.ogg|L}} | {{Inline audio|De-m.ogg|M}} |- | {{Inline audio|De-n.ogg|N}} | {{Inline audio|De-O.ogg|O}} | {{Inline audio|De-P.ogg|P}} | {{Inline audio|De-Q.ogg|Q}} | {{Inline audio|De-r.ogg|R}} | {{Inline audio|De-S.ogg|S}} | {{Inline audio|De-t.ogg|T}} | {{Inline audio|De-u.ogg|U}} | {{Inline audio|De-v.ogg|V}} | {{Inline audio|De-w.ogg|W}} | {{Inline audio|De-x.ogg|X}} | {{Inline audio|De-y.ogg|Y}} | {{Inline audio|De-Z.ogg|Z}} |} {{Inline audio|German extra letters.ogg|Ä – Ö – Ü – ß}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-Ä.ogg|Ä}} | {{Inline audio|De-ö.ogg|Ö}} | {{Inline audio|De-Ü.ogg|Ü}} | ß |} ==== Wörter mit dem Buchstaben A – Words with the letter A ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Mann | {{Inline audio|De-Mann.ogg}} | man | short [a] – closed syllable ending in consonant |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | land / country | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Hand | {{Inline audio|De-Hand.ogg}} | hand | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Wasser | {{Inline audio|De-Wasser.ogg}} | water | short [a] – doubled consonant indicates short vowel |- | fangen | {{Inline audio|De-fangen.ogg}} | to catch | short [a] – followed by consonant cluster |- | Vater | {{Inline audio|De-Vater.ogg}} | father | long [aː] – open syllable with single consonant after |- | Saal | {{Inline audio|De-Saal.ogg}} | hall | long [aː] – "aa" indicates vowel length |- | Zahn | {{Inline audio|De-Zahn.ogg}} | tooth | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |- | haben | {{Inline audio|De-haben.ogg}} | to have | long [aː] – open syllable |- | fahren | {{Inline audio|De-fahren.ogg}} | to drive / to go | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |} ==== Wörter mit den Buchstaben ä, ö, ü und ß – Words with the letters ä, ö, ü and ß ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Bär | {{Inline audio|De-Bär.ogg}} | bear | long [ɛː] – "ä" can indicate length (äh) |- | Männer | {{Inline audio|De-Männer.ogg}} | men | short [ɛ] – "ä" often pronounced like short [ɛ] |- | spät | {{Inline audio|De-spät.ogg}} | late | long [ɛː] – "ä" with "t" at the end, vowel length marked by "h" or final consonant |- | zählen | {{Inline audio|De-zählen.ogg}} | to count | long [ɛː] – "äh" signals length |- | hätte | {{Inline audio|De-hätte.ogg}} | would have | short [ɛ] – subjunctive form with short vowel |- | Öl | {{Inline audio|De-Öl.ogg}} | oil | long [øː] – stressed and in open syllable |- | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | twelve | short [œ] – followed by consonant cluster |- | schön | {{Inline audio|De-schön.ogg}} | beautiful | long [øː] – "ö" often lengthened before "n" |- | können | {{Inline audio|De-können.ogg}} | can (plural/infinitive) | short [œ] – doubled consonant shortens vowel |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | long [øː] – stressed vowel in open syllable |- | Tür | {{Inline audio|De-Tür.ogg}} | door | long [yː] – "ü" in stressed syllable, lengthened |- | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | five | short [ʏ] – closed syllable with consonant cluster |- | früh | {{Inline audio|De-früh.ogg}} | early | long [yː] – "üh" indicates length |- | Schüler | {{Inline audio|De-Schüler.ogg}} | pupil / student | long [yː] – vowel length marked by "h" |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | short [ʏ] – typical short "ü" |- | Straße | {{Inline audio|De-Straße.ogg}} | street | "ß" = [s] – sharp voiceless "s", vowel before is long |- | groß | {{Inline audio|De-groß.ogg}} | big / tall | "ß" = [s] – lengthens preceding vowel |- | heiß | {{Inline audio|De-heiß.ogg}} | hot | "ß" = [s] – marks preceding diphthong length |- | Fuß | {{Inline audio|De-Fuß.ogg}} | foot | "ß" = [s] – preceding vowel long [uː] |- | weiß | {{Inline audio|De-weiß.ogg}} | white | "ß" = [s] – diphthong [aɪ̯] + [s] |} ==== {{Inline audio|De-Buchstabiertafel.ogg|Buchstabiertafel}} – Spelling alphabet ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Phoneme ! Placeholder word ! Pronunciation ! Use/Notes |- | A | Anton | {{Inline audio|De-Anton.ogg}} | |- | Ä | Ärger | {{Inline audio|De-Ärger.ogg}} | |- | B | Berta | | |- | C | Cäsar | {{Inline audio|De-Caesar.ogg}} | |- | Ch | Charlotte | {{Inline audio|De-Charlotte.ogg}} | |- | D | Dora | | |- | E | Emil | {{Inline audio|De-Emil.ogg}} | |- | F | Friedrich | {{Inline audio|De-Friedrich.ogg}} | |- | G | Gustav | {{Inline audio|De-Gustav.ogg}} | |- | H | Heinrich | {{Inline audio|De-Heinrich.ogg}} | |- | I | Ida | {{Inline audio|De-Ida.ogg}} | |- | J | Julius | {{Inline audio|De-Julius.ogg}} | |- | K | Kaufmann | {{Inline audio|De-Kaufmann.ogg}} | |- | L | Ludwig | {{Inline audio|De-Ludwig.ogg}} | |- | M | Martha | {{Inline audio|De-Martha.ogg}} | |- | N | Nordpol | {{Inline audio|De-Nordpol.ogg}} | |- | O | Otto | {{Inline audio|De-Otto.ogg}} | |- | Ö | Ökonom | {{Inline audio|De-Ökonom.ogg}} | |- | P | Paula | {{Inline audio|De-Paula.ogg}} | |- | Q | Quelle | {{Inline audio|De-Quelle.ogg}} | |- | R | Richard | {{Inline audio|De-Richard.ogg}} | |- | S | Samuel | {{Inline audio|De-Samuel.ogg}} | |- | Sch | Schule | {{Inline audio|De-Schule.ogg}} | |- | ß | Eszett | {{Inline audio|De-Eszett.ogg}} | |- | T | Theodor | {{Inline audio|De-Theodor.ogg}} | |- | U | Ulrich | {{Inline audio|De-Ulrich.ogg}} | |- | Ü | Übermut | {{Inline audio|De-Übermut.ogg}} | |- | V | Viktor | {{Inline audio|De-Viktor.ogg}} | |- | W | Wilhelm | {{Inline audio|De-Wilhelm.ogg}} | |- | X | Xanthippe | {{Inline audio|De-Xanthippe.ogg}} | |- | Y | Ypsilon | {{Inline audio|De-Ypsilon.ogg}} | |- | Z | Zacharias | {{Inline audio|De-Zacharias.ogg}} | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your name in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Wie heißt du?'' |{{Inline audio|}} |''What is your name?'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Jan, aber du kannst mich Hans nennen. Heinrich–Anton–Nordpol–Samuel'' | |''My name is Jan, but you can call me Hans. H–A–N–S.'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Juan. Julius–Ulrich–Anton–Nordpol.'' | |''My name is Juan. J–U–A–N.'' | |- |... | | | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your'' ''place of origin in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronuncation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Woher kommst du?'' | |''Where do you come from?'' | |- |''Ich komme aus Vojníkov. Viktor–Otto–Julius–Nordpol–Ida–Kaufmann–Otto–Viktor.'' | |''I come from Vojníkov. V–O–J–N–I–K–O–V.'' | |- | | | | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Grundzahlen.ogg|Grundzahlen}} – Cardinal numbers === '''''Note:''' Numbers and years are pronounced the same way in German.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Německá čísla |- ! Number ! German ! Pronunciation ! Notes |- | 0 | null | {{Inline audio|De-null.ogg}} | |- | 1 | eins | {{Inline audio|De-eins.ogg}} | |- | 2 | zwei | {{Inline audio|De-zwei.ogg}} | |- | 3 | drei | {{Inline audio|De-drei.ogg}} | |- | 4 | vier | {{Inline audio|De-vier.ogg}} | |- | 5 | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | |- | 6 | sechs | {{Inline audio|De-sechs.ogg}} | |- | 7 | sieben | {{Inline audio|De-sieben.ogg}} | |- | 8 | acht | {{Inline audio|De-acht.ogg}} | |- | 9 | neun | {{Inline audio|De-neun.ogg}} | |- | 10 | zehn | {{Inline audio|De-zehn.ogg}} | |- | 11 | elf | {{Inline audio|De-elf.ogg}} | |- | 12 | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | |- | 13 | dreizehn | {{Inline audio|De-dreizehn.ogg}} | |- | 14 | vierzehn | {{Inline audio|De-vierzehn.ogg}} | |- | 15 | fünfzehn | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzehn.ogg}} | |- | 16 | sechzehn | {{Inline audio|De-sechzehn.ogg}} | |- | 17 | siebzehn | {{Inline audio|De-siebzehn.ogg}} | |- | 18 | achtzehn | {{Inline audio|De-achtzehn.ogg}} | |- | 19 | neunzehn | {{Inline audio|De-neunzehn.ogg}} | |- | 20 | zwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 21 | einundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-einundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 22 | zweiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zweiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 23 | dreiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-dreiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- |24 |vierundzwanzig | | |- |25 |fünfundzwanzig | | |- |26 |sechsundzwanzig | | |- |27 |siebenundzwanzig | | |- |28 |achtundzwanzig | | |- |29 |neunundzwanzig | | |- | 30 | dreißig | {{Inline audio|De-dreißig.ogg}} | |- |31 |einunddreißig | | |- | 40 | vierzig | {{Inline audio|De-vierzig.ogg}} | |- | 50 | fünfzig | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzig.ogg}} | |- | 60 | sechzig | {{Inline audio|De-sechzig.ogg}} | |- | 70 | siebzig | {{Inline audio|De-siebzig.ogg}} | |- | 80 | achtzig | {{Inline audio|De-achtzig.ogg}} | |- | 90 | neunzig | {{Inline audio|De-neunzig.ogg}} | |- | 100 | hundert | {{Inline audio|De-hundert.ogg}} | |- | 101 | hunderteins | {{Inline audio|De-hunderteins.ogg}} | |- |102 |hundertzwei | | |- |103 |hundertdrei | | |- |104 |hundertvier | | |- |105 |hundertfünf | | |- |106 |hundertsechs | | |- | 111 | hundertelf | {{Inline audio|De-hundertelf.ogg}} | |- | 200 | zweihundert | {{Inline audio|De-zweihundert.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 | tausend | {{Inline audio|De-tausend.ogg}} | |- | 10 000 | zehntausend | {{Inline audio|De-zehntausend.ogg}} | |- | 100 000 | hunderttausend | {{Inline audio|De-hunderttausend.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 000 | Million | {{Inline audio|De-Million.ogg}} | |- | 1 234 567 | Million zweihundertvierunddreißigtausendfünfhundertsiebenundsechzig | | |- | 2 000 000 | zwei Millionen | | From here onwards, there are two words. One for a million and the other for the rest. |- | 1 000 000 000 | Milliarde | {{Inline audio|De-Milliarde.ogg}} | |- | 2 500 000 000 | zwei Milliarden fünfhundert Millionen | | |- |250 386 536 253 |zweihundertfünfzig Milliarden dreihundertsechsundachtzig Millionen fünfhundertsechsunddreißigtausend zweihundertdreiundfünfzig | | |- | 1 000 000 000 000 | Billion | {{Inline audio|De-Billion.ogg}} | |- |200 000 000 000 000 |zweihundert Billionen | | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben B – Words with the letter B === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Ball | {{Inline audio|De-Ball.ogg}} | ball | [b] – at the beginning of the word, voiced |- | bleiben | {{Inline audio|De-bleiben.ogg}} | to stay | [b] – in the middle of the word, voiced |- | ab | {{Inline audio|De-ab.ogg}} | off / from | [p] – at the end of the word, final devoicing |- | ob | {{Inline audio|De-ob.ogg}} | whether / if | [p] – final position, devoiced |- | schreiben | {{Inline audio|De-schreiben.ogg}} | to write | [b] – inside the word, voiced |} === Was wirst du dieses Wochenende machen? – What will you do this weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Am Freitag sind wir noch zu Hause, da wir ein klassisches Konzert besuchen. Am Samstag fahren wir Richtung Norden und übernachten in Görlitz. Wir möchten die Stadt erkunden, da wir bisher nur den polnischen Teil kennen. Ich hoffe, dass wir im nahegelegenen See baden können. Am Sonntag fahren wir zurück nach Hause. |{{Inline audio|}} |We will still be at home on Friday because we are going to a classical music concert. On Saturday we are heading north and will sleep in Görlitz. We would like to explore this city because we only know the Polish part of it. I hope it will be possible to swim in the nearby lake. We are returning home on Sunday. | |- |Und was werden Sie tun? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what will you do? |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben C – Words with the letter C === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Cent | {{Inline audio|De-Cent.ogg}} | cent | [ts] – before "e" |- | circa | {{Inline audio|De-circa.ogg}} | approximately / about | [ts] – before "i" |- | Celsius | {{Inline audio|De-Celsius.ogg}} | Celsius | [ts] – before "e" |- | Cyber | {{Inline audio|}} | cyber | [ts] – before "y" |- | City | {{Inline audio|De-City.ogg}} | city | [ts] – before "i", often from English |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | [k] – loanword from French |- | Computer | {{Inline audio|De-Computer.ogg}} | computer | [k] – loanword from English |- | Clown | {{Inline audio|De-Clown.ogg}} | clown | [k] – loanword from English |- | Cola | {{Inline audio|De-Cola.ogg}} | cola | [k] – loanword, open syllable |- | Club | {{Inline audio|De-Club.ogg}} | club | [k] – loanword, final "c" pronounced hard |} === Was wir am Wochenende gemacht haben – What we did on the weekend === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo, wie ging es dir? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hi, how were you? | |- |Ziemlich gut. Letztendlich haben wir das Konzert abgesagt und sind am Freitag hingegangen. Wir haben die Katzennäpfe gefüllt und sind zum Konzert nach Görlitz gefahren. Schwimmen konnten wir zwar nicht, aber die Stadt war unglaublich. |{{Inline audio|}} |Pretty good. In the end, we gave up on the concert and went on Friday. We filled the cats' bowls and went to the concert in Görlitz. We couldn't swim, but the city was amazing. |- |Und was hast du gemacht? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what were you doing? | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben D – Words with the letter D === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Dach | {{Inline audio|De-Dach.ogg}} | roof | [d] – at the beginning, voiced |- | Dame | {{Inline audio|De-Dame.ogg}} | lady | [d] – initial position, voiced |- | denken | {{Inline audio|De-denken.ogg}} | to think | [d] – inside the word, voiced |- | Bruder | {{Inline audio|De-Bruder.ogg}} | brother | [d] – medial, voiced |- | Kinder | {{Inline audio|De-Kinder.ogg}} | children | [d] – medial, voiced |- | und | {{Inline audio|De-und.ogg}} | and | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Hund | {{Inline audio|De-Hund.ogg}} | dog | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | country / land | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Abend | {{Inline audio|De-Abend.ogg}} | evening | [t] – final "d" pronounced [t] |- | Bild | {{Inline audio|De-Bild.ogg}} | picture | [t] – final position, devoiced |} === Früchte – Fruits === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Picture ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Notes |- | [[File:Idared pomme.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Apfel | {{Inline audio|De-Apfel.ogg}} | apple | |- | [[File:Pear DS.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Birne | {{Inline audio|De-Birne.ogg}} | pear | |- | [[File:Cherry Stella444.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Kirsche | {{Inline audio|De-Kirsche.ogg}} | cherry | |- |[[File:Sloes, Swindon and Cricklade Railway - geograph.org.uk - 549616.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Schlehe | |blackthorn/sloe |''Prunus spinosa'' is a thorny shrub with small, round, dark blue and very bitter fruits. It grows wild. In Czech language it is called "trnka". |- | [[File:C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Zwetschge | {{Inline audio|De-Zwetschge.ogg}} | plum/European plum |Scientifically ''Prunus domestica'' subsp. ''domestica.'' In Czech "švestka". |- | [[File:Prunes Rouge et Blanche Provence Cl J Weber (23379539230).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pflaume | {{Inline audio|De-Pflaume.ogg}} | plum | |- | | Mirabelle | {{Inline audio|De-Mirabelle.ogg}} | mirabelle | |- | [[File:Grapevine green.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Traube | {{Inline audio|De-Traube.ogg}} | grape |Also ''Weintraube''. |- | [[File:Gâteau Génoise Chocolat (31315341).jpeg|frameless|200x200px]] | Erdbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Erdbeere.ogg}} | strawberry | |- | [[File:3. Strobery.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Himbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Himbeere.ogg}} | raspberry |- | [[File:Blackberries by feiern1.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Brombeere | {{Inline audio|De-Brombeere.ogg}} | blackberry |- | [[File:Blueberries (52187526180).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Heidelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Heidelbeere.ogg}} | blueberry |- | | Johannisbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Johannisbeere.ogg}} | currant |- | | Stachelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Stachelbeere.ogg}} | gooseberry |- | | Melone | {{Inline audio|De-Melone.ogg}} | melon |- | | Wassermelone | {{Inline audio|De-Wassermelone.ogg}} | watermelon |- | | Pfirsich | {{Inline audio|De-Pfirsich.ogg}} | peach |- | | Aprikose | {{Inline audio|De-Aprikose.ogg}} | apricot |- | | Nektarine | {{Inline audio|De-Nektarine.ogg}} | nectarine |- | | Orange | {{Inline audio|De-Orange.ogg}} | orange |- | | Mandarine | {{Inline audio|De-Mandarine.ogg}} | mandarin / tangerine |- | | Zitrone | {{Inline audio|De-Zitrone.ogg}} | lemon |- | | Banane | {{Inline audio|De-Banane.ogg}} | banana |- | | Kiwi | {{Inline audio|De-Kiwi.ogg}} | kiwi |- | | Ananas | {{Inline audio|De-Ananas.ogg}} | pineapple |} === Wörter mit dem Buchstaben E – Words with the letter E === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | lesen | {{Inline audio|De-lesen.ogg}} | to read | [eː] – long vowel in open syllable |- | sehen | {{Inline audio|De-sehen.ogg}} | to see | [eː] – long vowel before "h" |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher | [eː] – stressed long vowel |- | Bett | {{Inline audio|De-Bett.ogg}} | bed | [ɛ] – short vowel, closed syllable with double consonant |- | Ende | {{Inline audio|De-Ende.ogg}} | end | [ɛ] – short vowel in stressed syllable |- | essen | {{Inline audio|De-essen.ogg}} | to eat | [ɛ] – short vowel, double consonant indicates shortness |- | bitte | {{Inline audio|De-bitte.ogg}} | please | [ə] – final unstressed "e" pronounced schwa |- | alle | {{Inline audio|De-alle.ogg}} | all | [ə] – final "e" as schwa |- | Name | {{Inline audio|De-Name.ogg}} | name | [ə] – final "e" reduced to schwa |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | final "é" (from French) often not pronounced, silent |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Grüß Gott. | |Greetings. | |- |Hey, Peter. | |Hi, Peter. | |- |Wie war dein Wochenende? | |How was your weekend? | |- |Am Samstag war ich zu Hause, da ich die Dokumente meines Großvaters digitalisieren wollte, und ruhte mich nachmittags aus. Am Sonntag machte ich dann einen Ausflug. Zuerst besuchte ich die Steinspirale in Úvaly und dann den Steinkreis in Kutná Hora. Ursprünglich wollte ich das Wochenende bis heute verlängern, aber da es mir nicht gut ging, fuhr ich erst am Sonntag wieder nach Hause. | |On Saturday, I was at home, having decided to digitize my grandfather's documents, and I rested in the afternoon. Then on Sunday, I went on a trip. First, I visited the stone spiral in Úvaly, and then I went to see the stone circle in Kutná Hora. Initially, I wanted to extend the weekend until today, but since I wasn't feeling well, I returned home on Sunday. | |- |Und haben Sie in den Dokumenten Ihres Großvaters etwas Interessantes entdeckt? | |And did you discover anything interesting in your grandfather's documents? | |- |Ja, ich habe dort Diplome für die Absolvierung einzelner Studienfächer gefunden. Das heißt, man hatte in den 40er Jahren nicht nur ein Abschlusszeugnis für das Studium, sondern man erhielt für jedes absolvierte Fach ein Diplom. | |Yes, I found diplomas there for completing individual subjects at university. This means that in the 1940s, they didn't just have a final diploma for their university studies, but they received a diploma for each subject completed. | |- |Was hat Ihr Großvater studiert? | |What did your grandfather study? | |- |Das Fachgebiet hieß Versicherungsstatistik oder so ähnlich. Ich glaube aber, dass er ein klassischer Statistiker oder Mathematiker war, denn er verdiente seinen Lebensunterhalt später als Programmierer und führte Computer in die Lagerverwaltung von Unternehmen ein. | |The field was called statistics-insurance, or something like that. But I think he was a classic statistician or mathematician, because he then made a living as a programmer and introduced computers into companies' warehouse management. | |- |Und wie ging es dir? | |And how were you? | |- |Ich war das ganze Wochenende zu Hause, ich hatte Zahnschmerzen. | |I was home all weekend, I had a toothache. | |- |Es tut mir Leid. | |I'm sorry. | |} === Beim Autoservice – At the car service === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Guten Tag | |Good day | |- |Guten Tag, wie kann ich Ihnen helfen? | |Hello, how can I help you? | |- |Sie müssen sich mein Auto ansehen. | |I need you to look at my car. | |- |Was ist daran falsch? | |What's wrong with it? | |- |Beim Schalten höre ich manchmal ein furchtbares Geräusch, als würde es einfach gegen die Gänge gehen. Das passiert nur manchmal beim Rückwärtsfahren, aber auch beim Schalten auf der Autobahn bei höherer Geschwindigkeit. | |When I shift gears, I sometimes hear a terrible noise, like it's just going against the gears. It only happens sometimes when I'm in reverse, but also when I'm shifting gears on the highway at higher speeds. | |} === Personalpronomen – Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | ich | {{Inline audio|De-ich.ogg}} | I | 1st person singular |- | du | {{Inline audio|De-du.ogg}} | you | 2nd person singular (informal) |- | er | {{Inline audio|De-er.ogg}} | he | 3rd person singular masculine |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | she | 3rd person singular feminine |- | es | {{Inline audio|De-es.ogg}} | it | 3rd person singular neuter |- | wir | {{Inline audio|De-wir.ogg}} | we | 1st person plural |- | ihr | {{Inline audio|De-ihr.ogg}} | you (plural) | 2nd person plural informal |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | they | 3rd person plural |- | Sie | {{Inline audio|De-Sie.ogg}} | you (formal) | Singular & plural, polite form |} === Personalpronomen in Sätzen – Personal pronouns in sentences === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Wie heißt du? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Informal question |- | Ich heiße Anna. | {{Inline audio|}} | My name is Anna. | Answer, introduce yourself |- | Wie heißen Sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Formal question |- | Ich bin Herr Müller. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am Mr. Müller. | Formal introduction |- | Woher kommst du? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you from? | Informal question about origin |- | Ich komme aus Deutschland. | {{Inline audio|}} | I come from Germany. | Answer about origin |- | Was bist du von Beruf? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your profession? | Informal question about job |- | Ich bin Lehrer. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am a teacher. | Answer about profession |- | Was machen Sie beruflich? | {{Inline audio|}} | What do you do for a living? | More formal/professional |- | Ich arbeite als Ingenieur. | {{Inline audio|}} | I work as an engineer. | Formal/professional answer |- | Wer ist er? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is he? | Question about a male person |- | Er heißt Peter. | {{Inline audio|}} | His name is Peter. | Answer with masculine pronoun |- | Wer ist sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is she? | Question about a female person |- | Sie ist meine Freundin. | {{Inline audio|}} | She is my friend. | Feminine pronoun |- | Wer ist es? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is it? | Question about neuter/unknown subject |- | Es ist ein Kind. | {{Inline audio|}} | It is a child. | Neuter pronoun |- | Wer sind wir? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are we? | Question with "wir" (we) |- | Wir sind Studenten. | {{Inline audio|}} | We are students. | 1st person plural |- | Wo seid ihr? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you (plural)? | Question with "ihr" (you, plural informal) |- | Ihr seid meine Freunde. | {{Inline audio|}} | You are my friends. | 2nd person plural informal |- | Wer sind sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are they? | Question with "sie" (they) |- | Sie kommen aus Spanien. | {{Inline audio|}} | They come from Spain. | 3rd person plural |} === Länder – Countries === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Deutschland | {{Inline audio|De-Deutschland.ogg}} | Germany | |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | |- | Schweiz | {{Inline audio|De-Schweiz.ogg}} | Switzerland | |- | Tschechien | {{Inline audio|De-Tschechien.ogg}} | Czech Republic | |- | Slowakei | {{Inline audio|De-Slowakei.ogg}} | Slovakia | |- | Polen | {{Inline audio|De-Polen.ogg}} | Poland | |- | Ungarn | {{Inline audio|De-Ungarn.ogg}} | Hungary | |- | Frankreich | {{Inline audio|De-Frankreich.ogg}} | France | |- | Italien | {{Inline audio|De-Italien.ogg}} | Italy | |- | Spanien | {{Inline audio|De-Spanien.ogg}} | Spain | |- | Portugal | {{Inline audio|De-Portugal.ogg}} | Portugal | |- | Griechenland | {{Inline audio|De-Griechenland.ogg}} | Greece | |- | Dänemark | {{Inline audio|De-Dänemark.ogg}} | Denmark | |- | Schweden | {{Inline audio|De-Schweden.ogg}} | Sweden | |- | Norwegen | {{Inline audio|De-Norwegen.ogg}} | Norway | |- | Finnland | {{Inline audio|De-Finnland.ogg}} | Finland | |- | Russland | {{Inline audio|De-Russland.ogg}} | Russia | |- | China | {{Inline audio|De-China.ogg}} | China | |- | Australien | {{Inline audio|De-Australien.ogg}} | Australia | |- | Vereinigte Staaten | {{Inline audio|De-Vereinigte Staaten.ogg}} | United States | |} === Städte – Towns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | |- | Bratislava | {{Inline audio|De-Bratislava.ogg}} | Bratislava | |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | |- | Budapest | {{Inline audio|De-Budapest.ogg}} | Budapest | |- | Paris | {{Inline audio|De-Paris.ogg}} | Paris | |- | Rom | {{Inline audio|De-Rom.ogg}} | Rome | |- | Madrid | {{Inline audio|De-Madrid.ogg}} | Madrid | |- | Lissabon | {{Inline audio|De-Lissabon.ogg}} | Lisbon | |- | Athen | {{Inline audio|De-Athen.ogg}} | Athens | |- | Kopenhagen | {{Inline audio|De-Kopenhagen.ogg}} | Copenhagen | |- | Stockholm | {{Inline audio|De-Stockholm.ogg}} | Stockholm | |- | Oslo | {{Inline audio|De-Oslo.ogg}} | Oslo | |- | Helsinki | {{Inline audio|De-Helsinki.ogg}} | Helsinki | |- | Moskau | {{Inline audio|De-Moskau.ogg}} | Moscow | |- | Peking | {{Inline audio|De-Peking.ogg}} | Beijing | |- | Canberra | {{Inline audio|De-Canberra.ogg}} | Canberra | |- | Washington | {{Inline audio|De-Washington.ogg}} | Washington, D.C. | |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | Germany |- | Hamburg | {{Inline audio|De-Hamburg.ogg}} | Hamburg | Germany |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | Germany |- | Köln | {{Inline audio|De-Köln.ogg}} | Cologne | Germany |- | Frankfurt am Main | {{Inline audio|De-Frankfurt am Main.ogg}} | Frankfurt am Main | Germany |- | Stuttgart | {{Inline audio|De-Stuttgart.ogg}} | Stuttgart | Germany |- | Düsseldorf | {{Inline audio|De-Düsseldorf.ogg}} | Düsseldorf | Germany |- | Leipzig | {{Inline audio|De-Leipzig.ogg}} | Leipzig | Germany |- | Dortmund | {{Inline audio|De-Dortmund.ogg}} | Dortmund | Germany |- | Essen | {{Inline audio|De-Essen.ogg}} | Essen | Germany |- | Bremen | {{Inline audio|De-Bremen.ogg}} | Bremen | Germany |- | Dresden | {{Inline audio|De-Dresden.oga}} | Dresden | Germany |- | Hannover | {{Inline audio|De-Hannover.ogg}} | Hanover | Germany |- | Nürnberg | {{Inline audio|De-Nürnberg.ogg}} | Nuremberg | Germany |- | Duisburg | {{Inline audio|De-Duisburg.ogg}} | Duisburg | Germany |- | Bochum | {{Inline audio|De-Bochum.ogg}} | Bochum | Germany |- | Wuppertal | {{Inline audio|De-Wuppertal.ogg}} | Wuppertal | Germany |- | Bielefeld | {{Inline audio|De-Bielefeld.ogg}} | Bielefeld | Germany |- | Bonn | {{Inline audio|De-Bonn.ogg}} | Bonn | Germany |- | Münster | {{Inline audio|De-Münster.ogg}} | Münster | Germany |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | Austria |- | Graz | {{Inline audio|De-Graz.ogg}} | Graz | Austria |- | Linz | {{Inline audio|De-Linz.ogg}} | Linz | Austria |- | Salzburg | {{Inline audio|De-Salzburg.ogg}} | Salzburg | Austria |- | Innsbruck | {{Inline audio|De-Innsbruck.ogg}} | Innsbruck | Austria |- | Klagenfurt | {{Inline audio|De-Klagenfurt.ogg}} | Klagenfurt | Austria |- | Villach | {{Inline audio|De-Villach.ogg}} | Villach | Austria |- | Wels | {{Inline audio|De-Wels.ogg}} | Wels | Austria |- | Sankt Pölten | {{Inline audio|De-at St Pölten.ogg}} | St. Pölten | Austria |- | Dornbirn | {{Inline audio|De-Dornbirn.ogg}} | Dornbirn | Austria |- | Zürich | {{Inline audio|De-Zürich.ogg}} | Zurich | Switzerland |- | Genf | {{Inline audio|De-Genf.ogg}} | Geneva | Switzerland |- | Basel | {{Inline audio|De-Basel.ogg}} | Basel | Switzerland |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | Switzerland |- | Lausanne | {{Inline audio|De-Lausanne.ogg}} | Lausanne | Switzerland |- | Winterthur | {{Inline audio|De-Winterthur.ogg}} | Winterthur | Switzerland |- | Luzern | {{Inline audio|De-Luzern.ogg}} | Lucerne | Switzerland |- | St. Gallen | {{Inline audio|}} | St. Gallen | Switzerland |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | Czech Republic – Praha |- | Brünn | {{Inline audio|De-Brünn.ogg}} | Brno | Czech Republic – Brno |- | Pilsen | {{Inline audio|De-Pilsen.ogg}} | Plzeň | Czech Republic – Plzeň |- | Budweis | {{Inline audio|De-Budweis.ogg}} | České Budějovice | Czech Republic – České Budějovice |- | Olmütz | {{Inline audio|De-Olmütz.ogg}} | Olomouc | Czech Republic – Olomouc |- | Reichenberg | {{Inline audio|}} | Liberec | Czech Republic – Liberec |- | Iglau | {{Inline audio|De-Iglau.ogg}} | Jihlava | Czech Republic – Jihlava |- | Eger | {{Inline audio|De-Eger.ogg}} | Cheb | Czech Republic – Cheb |- | Karlsbad | {{Inline audio|De-Karlsbad.ogg}} | Karlovy Vary | Czech Republic – Karlovy Vary |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | Poland – Warszawa |- | Krakau | {{Inline audio|De-Krakau.ogg}} | Kraków | Poland – Kraków |- | Danzig | {{Inline audio|De-Danzig.ogg}} | Gdańsk | Poland – Gdańsk |- | Breslau | {{Inline audio|De-Breslau.ogg}} | Wrocław | Poland – Wrocław |- | Stettin | {{Inline audio|De-Stettin.ogg}} | Szczecin | Poland – Szczecin |- | Posen | {{Inline audio|De-Posen.ogg}} | Poznań | Poland – Poznań |- | Kattowitz | {{Inline audio|De-Kattowitz.ogg}} | Katowice | Poland – Katowice |- | Allenstein | {{Inline audio|De-Allenstein.ogg}} | Olsztyn | Poland – Olsztyn |- | Oppeln | {{Inline audio|De-Oppeln.ogg}} | Opole | Poland – Opole |} === Berufe – Professions === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher (male) | |- | Lehrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrerin.ogg}} | teacher (female) | |- | Arzt | {{Inline audio|De-Arzt.ogg}} | doctor (male) | |- | Ärztin | {{Inline audio|De-Ärztin.ogg}} | doctor (female) | |- | Ingenieur | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieur.ogg}} | engineer (male) | |- | Ingenieurin | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieurin.ogg}} | engineer (female) | |- | Verkäufer | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäufer.ogg}} | salesman | |- | Verkäuferin | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäuferin.ogg}} | saleswoman | |- | Kellner | {{Inline audio|De-Kellner.ogg}} | waiter | |- | Kellnerin | {{Inline audio|De-Kellnerin.ogg}} | waitress | |- | Polizist | {{Inline audio|De-Polizist.ogg}} | policeman | |- | Polizistin | {{Inline audio|De-Polizistin.ogg}} | policewoman | |- | Journalist | {{Inline audio|De-Journalist.ogg}} | journalist (male) | |- | Journalistin | {{Inline audio|De-Journalistin.ogg}} | journalist (female) | |- | Bauer | {{Inline audio|De-Bauer.ogg}} | farmer (male) | |- | Bäuerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäuerin.ogg}} | farmer (female) | |- | Student | {{Inline audio|De-Student.ogg}} | student (male) | |- | Studentin | {{Inline audio|De-Studentin.ogg}} | student (female) | |- | Künstler | {{Inline audio|De-Künstler.ogg}} | artist (male) | |- | Künstlerin | {{Inline audio|De-Künstlerin.ogg}} | artist (female) | |- | Programmierer | {{Inline audio|De-Programmierer.ogg}} | programmer (male) | |- | Programmiererin | {{Inline audio|De-Programmiererin.ogg}} | programmer (female) | |- | Manager | {{Inline audio|De-Manager.ogg}} | manager (male) | |- | Managerin | {{Inline audio|De-Managerin.ogg}} | manager (female) | |- | Fahrer | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrer.ogg}} | driver (male) | |- | Fahrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrerin.ogg}} | driver (female) | |- | Musiker | {{Inline audio|De-Musiker.ogg}} | musician (male) | |- | Musikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Musikerin.ogg}} | musician (female) | |- | Schauspieler | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspieler.ogg}} | actor | |- | Schauspielerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspielerin.ogg}} | actress | |- | Koch | {{Inline audio|De-Koch.ogg}} | cook (male) | |- | Köchin | {{Inline audio|De-Köchin.ogg}} | cook (female) | |- | Architekt | {{Inline audio|De-Architekt.ogg}} | architect (male) | |- | Architektin | {{Inline audio|De-Architektin.ogg}} | architect (female) | |- | Bibliothekar | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekar.ogg}} | librarian (male) | |- | Bibliothekarin | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekarin.ogg}} | librarian (female) | |- | Pilot | {{Inline audio|De-Pilot.ogg}} | pilot (male) | |- | Pilotin | {{Inline audio|De-Pilotin.ogg}} | pilot (female) | |- | Krankenpfleger | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenpfleger.ogg}} | nurse (male) | |- | Krankenschwester | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenschwester.ogg}} | nurse (female) | |- | Schneider | {{Inline audio|De-Schneider.ogg}} | tailor (male) | |- | Schneiderin | {{Inline audio|De-Schneiderin.ogg}} | tailor (female) | |- | Maler | {{Inline audio|De-Maler.ogg}} | painter (male) | |- | Malerin | {{Inline audio|De-Malerin.ogg}} | painter (female) | |- | Mechaniker | {{Inline audio|De-Mechaniker.ogg}} | mechanic (male) | |- | Mechanikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Mechanikerin.ogg}} | mechanic (female) | |- | Elektriker | {{Inline audio|De-Elektriker.ogg}} | electrician (male) | |- | Elektrikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Elektrikerin.ogg}} | electrician (female) | |- | Bäcker | {{Inline audio|De-Bäcker.ogg}} | baker (male) | |- | Bäckerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäckerin.ogg}} | baker (female) | |- | Metzger | {{Inline audio|De-Metzger.ogg}} | butcher (male) | |- | Metzgerin | {{Inline audio|}} | butcher (female) | |- | Forscher | {{Inline audio|De-Forscher.ogg}} | researcher (male) | |- | Forscherin | {{Inline audio|De-Forscherin.ogg}} | researcher (female) | |- | Fotograf | {{Inline audio|De-Fotograf.ogg}} | photographer (male) | |- | Fotografin | {{Inline audio|De-Fotografin.ogg}} | photographer (female) | |- | Designer | {{Inline audio|De-Designer.ogg}} | designer (male) | |- | Designerin | {{Inline audio|De-Designerin.ogg}} | designer (female) | |- | Schriftsteller | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftsteller.ogg}} | writer (male) | |- | Schriftstellerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftstellerin.ogg}} | writer (female) | |} === Fragen und Antworten – Questions and answers === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | | |What is your name? | |- | | |My name is Hans. | |- | | |Where do you come from? | |- | | |I come from Spain. | |- | | |Who is he? | |- | | |That is my brother. | |} == Texts == [[Category:Audio-visual German language materials|Pronunciation]] [[Category:Pronunciation]] 8n904vxikef8tr47nzgz2pxnd8f9z60 2816806 2816752 2026-06-25T07:44:18Z Juandev 2651 /* Früchte – Fruits */ +x 2816806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{non-formal education}}{{languages}}{{0% done}}{{German}} == Words/Phrases == === {{Inline audio|De-Grüße.ogg|Grüße}} – Greetings === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronanciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo |{{Inline audio|De-Hallo.ogg}} |Hello | |- |Hi |{{Inline audio|De-hi.ogg}} |Hi |informal |- |Hey |{{Inline audio|De-hey.ogg}} |Hey |Informal, mostly among friends |- |Guten Tag |{{Inline audio|De-guten Tag2.ogg}} |Good day |Polite, formal |- |Tag |{{Inline audio|De-Tag2.ogg}} |day |colloquially |- |Guten Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-guten Morgen2.ogg}} |Good morning |Until 11 a.m. |- |Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-Morgen2.ogg}} |Morning |colloquially |- |Guten Mittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good noon |Rarely used, mostly literal |- |Guten Nachmittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good afternoon |Rarely used |- |Guten Abend |{{Inline audio|De-guten Abend.ogg}} |Good evening |From 6 p.m. |- |N‘Abend! | |evening |colloquially, Northern Germany |- |Servus |{{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}} |Hello / Hi |Informal, used in southern Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland |- |Grüß dich |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Informal, friendly |- |Grüß Gott |{{Inline audio|De-grüß Gott.ogg}} |Greetings / God bless you |Southern Germany, Austria, Bavaria; formal or informal |- |Moin |{{Inline audio|De-moin.ogg}} |Hi / Hello |Northern Germany, any time of day |- |Na? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hey? / What’s up? |Informal, very casual |- |Wie geht’s? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht’s.ogg}} |How are you? |Informal |- |Wie geht es Ihnen? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht es Ihnen.ogg}} |How are you? |Formal |- |Alles klar? |{{Inline audio|}} |All good? / Everything okay? |Informal |- |Was geht? |{{Inline audio|}} |What’s up? |Informal, youth slang |- |Was machst du? |{{Inline audio|}} |What are you doing? | |- |Lange nicht gesehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Long time no see! | |- |Schön dich zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Informal |- |Schön Sie zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Formal |- |Willkommen! |{{Inline audio|De-willkommen.ogg}} |Welcome! | |- |Herzlich willkommen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Warm welcome! |Formal, polite |- |Grüezi |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Switzerland |} === {{Inline audio|De-Abschiede.ogg|Abschiede}} – Farewells === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German !! Pronunciation !! English !! Use/Notes |- | Auf Wiedersehen || {{Inline audio|De-auf Wiedersehen.oga}}||Goodbye || Formal |- | Auf Wiederschauen || {{Inline audio|}}||Goodbye || Formal, mostly in Bavaria and Austria. |- | Tschüss || {{Inline audio|De-tschüs2.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, very common |- | Tschö || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal, mainly in Cologne and Rhineland. |- |Tschüssi! || {{Inline audio|}} || Byee || inoformal, eastern Germany |- | Ciao || {{Inline audio|De-ciao.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, popular among youth. |- | Bye || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal |- | Servus || {{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southern Germany, Austria |- | Ade || {{Inline audio|De-Ade.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southwestern Germany and Switzerland. |- | Grüezi || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye/Hello || Informal, Swiss German |- | Mach’s gut || {{Inline audio|De-mach's gut.ogg}}||Take care || Informal |- | Machen Sie’s gut || {{Inline audio|}}||Take care || Formal |- | Bis bald || {{Inline audio|De-bis bald.ogg}}||See you soon || |- | Bis später || {{Inline audio|}}||See you later || When meeting later the same day. |- | Bis gleich || {{Inline audio|}}||See you in a bit || When meeting again very soon. |- | Bis dann || {{Inline audio|De-bis dann.ogg}}||See you then || Casual, used when a meeting is arranged. |- | Bis morgen || {{Inline audio|}}||See you tomorrow || |- | Wir sehen uns || {{Inline audio|}} ||See you || Casual and friendly. |- | Gute Nacht || {{Inline audio|De-Gute Nacht.ogg}}||Good night || |- | Schönen Tag noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice day || |- | Schönen Abend noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice evening || |- | Schönes Wochenende || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice weekend || |- | Frohe Feiertage || {{Inline audio|}}||Happy holidays || |} === Ich spreche kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es. – I don't speak German, but I'm learning it. === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Sprechen Sie bitte Englisch? | {{Inline audio|}} | Do you speak English, please? | |- | Ich spreche kein Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|De-Ich spreche kein Deutsch..ogg}} | I don't speak German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am learning German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch, aber ich weiß noch nicht viel. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German, but I don't know much yet. | |- | Könnten Sie bitte langsamer sprechen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Could you speak more slowly, please? | |- | Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you repeat that again? | |- | Können Sie das buchstabieren? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you spell it? | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. Ich würde Ihr Feedback schätzen. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German. I'd appreciate your feedback. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Ich heiße ....ogg|Ich heiße}} – My name is === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Jan Lochman. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is Jan Lochman. | |- |Können Sie das buchstabieren? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you spell it? | |- |Julius-Anton-Nordpol-Leerzeichen-Ludwig-Otto-Charlotte-Martha-Anton-Nordpol |{{Inline audio|}} |j-a-n-space-l-o-c-h-m-a-n | |- |Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you repeat that again? | |- |Wie heißt du? |{{Inline audio|De-Wie heißt du?.ogg}} |What is your name? | |- |Johanna |{{Inline audio|De-Johanna.ogg}} |Jane | |- |Georg |{{Inline audio|De-Georg2.ogg}} |George | |- |Maria |{{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} |Mary | |- |Johann |{{Inline audio|De-Johann.ogg}} |John | |- |Eva |{{Inline audio|De-Eva.ogg}} |Eve | |- |Peter |{{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} |Peter | |- |Hanna |{{Inline audio|}} |Hanna | |- |Anna |{{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} |Anne | |- |Paul |{{Inline audio|De-Paul.ogg}} |Paul | |} === Die häufigsten deutschen Namen – Most common German names === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | Michael | {{Inline audio|De-Michael.ogg}} | Michael | |- | Thomas | {{Inline audio|De-Thomas.ogg}} | Thomas | |- | Andreas | {{Inline audio|De-Andreas.ogg}} | Andrew | |- | Stefan | {{Inline audio|De-Stefan.ogg}} | Stephen | |- | Peter | {{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} | Peter | |- | Wolfgang | {{Inline audio|De-Wolfgang.ogg}} | Wolfgang | |- | Hans | {{Inline audio|De-Hans.ogg}} | John | |- | Klaus | {{Inline audio|De-Klaus.ogg}} | Claus / Nicholas | |- | Karl | {{Inline audio|De-Karl.ogg}} | Charles | |- | Heinz | {{Inline audio|De-Heinz.ogg}} | Henry | |- | Johannes | {{Inline audio|De-Johannes.ogg}} | John | |- | Martin | {{Inline audio|De-Martin.ogg}} | Martin | |- | Matthias | {{Inline audio|De-Matthias.ogg}} | Matthew | |- | Christian | {{Inline audio|De-Christian.ogg}} | Christian | |- | Josef | {{Inline audio|De-Josef.ogg}} | Joseph | |- | Franz | {{Inline audio|De-Franz.ogg}} | Francis | |- | Dieter | {{Inline audio|De-Dieter.ogg}} | Dieter / Derek | |- | Jürgen | {{Inline audio|De-Jürgen.ogg}} | George | |- | Uwe | {{Inline audio|De-Uwe.ogg}} | Hugh | |- | Günter | {{Inline audio|De-Günter.ogg}} | Gunther | |- | Anna | {{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} | Anna / Anne | |- | Maria | {{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} | Mary | |- | Emma | {{Inline audio|De-Emma.ogg}} | Emma | |- | Elisabeth | {{Inline audio|De-Elisabeth.ogg}} | Elizabeth | |- | Katharina | {{Inline audio|De-Katharina2.ogg}} | Catherine / Katherine | |- | Barbara | {{Inline audio|De-Barbara.ogg}} | Barbara | |- | Sabine | {{Inline audio|De-Sabine.ogg}} | Sabina | |- | Claudia | {{Inline audio|De-Claudia.ogg}} | Claudia | |- | Monika | {{Inline audio|De-Monika.ogg}} | Monica | |- | Julia | {{Inline audio|De-Julia.ogg}} | Julia | |- | Christina | {{Inline audio|De-Christina.ogg}} | Christina / Christine | |- | Angelika | {{Inline audio|De-Angelika.ogg}} | Angelica | |- | Susanne | {{Inline audio|De-Susanne.ogg}} | Susan / Suzanne | |- | Ursula | {{Inline audio|De-Ursula.ogg}} | Ursula | |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mir geht es gut. Übers Wochenende war ich bei meiner Großmutter in Westböhmen. Am Samstag besuchten wir das bayerische Städtchen Cham, wo wir uns das Zentrum ansahen und ein paar Fotos machten. Am Sonntag arbeiteten wir im Garten, pflückten Birnen und sammelten heruntergefallene Äpfel und Nüsse. Am Nachmittag besuchten wir das Jagdschloss Diana bei Rozvadov. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am fine. I was at my grandmother's in West Bohemia over the weekend. On Saturday, we visited the Bavarian town of Cham, where we looked around the center and took a few photos. On Sunday, we worked in the garden, picking pears and collecting fallen apples and nuts. In the afternoon, we visited the Diana hunting lodge near Rozvadov. | |} === Sich vorstellen – Introducing yourself === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Hans. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is John. | |- |Ich bin ein Tscheche aus Prag. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Czech from Prague. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am Spanish. | |- |Ich komme aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am from Granada. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Spanish from Granda. | |- |Ich bin ein Pole aus Breslau. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Pole from Wrocław. | |- |Ich spreche Englisch, Spanisch und ein wenig Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I speak English, Spanish and a little German. | |- |Ich spreche noch kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't speak German yet, but I'm learning? | |- |Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|De-Sprechen Sie Englisch.oga}} |Do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht. Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht, ich spreche kein Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, I don't speak German. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Alphabet.ogg|Alphabet}} – Alphabet === {{Inline audio|German alphabet-2.ogg|A – B – C – D – E – F – G – H – I – J – K – L – M – N – O – P – Q – R – S – T – U – V – W – X – Y – Z}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-a.ogg|A}} | {{Inline audio|De-B.ogg|B}} | {{Inline audio|De-C.ogg|C}} | {{Inline audio|De-D.ogg|D}} | {{Inline audio|De-e.ogg|E}} | {{Inline audio|De-f.ogg|F}} | {{Inline audio|De-g.ogg|G}} | {{Inline audio|De-h.ogg|H}} | {{Inline audio|De-i.ogg|I}} | {{Inline audio|De-j.ogg|J}} | {{Inline audio|De-k.ogg|K}} | {{Inline audio|De-l.ogg|L}} | {{Inline audio|De-m.ogg|M}} |- | {{Inline audio|De-n.ogg|N}} | {{Inline audio|De-O.ogg|O}} | {{Inline audio|De-P.ogg|P}} | {{Inline audio|De-Q.ogg|Q}} | {{Inline audio|De-r.ogg|R}} | {{Inline audio|De-S.ogg|S}} | {{Inline audio|De-t.ogg|T}} | {{Inline audio|De-u.ogg|U}} | {{Inline audio|De-v.ogg|V}} | {{Inline audio|De-w.ogg|W}} | {{Inline audio|De-x.ogg|X}} | {{Inline audio|De-y.ogg|Y}} | {{Inline audio|De-Z.ogg|Z}} |} {{Inline audio|German extra letters.ogg|Ä – Ö – Ü – ß}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-Ä.ogg|Ä}} | {{Inline audio|De-ö.ogg|Ö}} | {{Inline audio|De-Ü.ogg|Ü}} | ß |} ==== Wörter mit dem Buchstaben A – Words with the letter A ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Mann | {{Inline audio|De-Mann.ogg}} | man | short [a] – closed syllable ending in consonant |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | land / country | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Hand | {{Inline audio|De-Hand.ogg}} | hand | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Wasser | {{Inline audio|De-Wasser.ogg}} | water | short [a] – doubled consonant indicates short vowel |- | fangen | {{Inline audio|De-fangen.ogg}} | to catch | short [a] – followed by consonant cluster |- | Vater | {{Inline audio|De-Vater.ogg}} | father | long [aː] – open syllable with single consonant after |- | Saal | {{Inline audio|De-Saal.ogg}} | hall | long [aː] – "aa" indicates vowel length |- | Zahn | {{Inline audio|De-Zahn.ogg}} | tooth | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |- | haben | {{Inline audio|De-haben.ogg}} | to have | long [aː] – open syllable |- | fahren | {{Inline audio|De-fahren.ogg}} | to drive / to go | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |} ==== Wörter mit den Buchstaben ä, ö, ü und ß – Words with the letters ä, ö, ü and ß ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Bär | {{Inline audio|De-Bär.ogg}} | bear | long [ɛː] – "ä" can indicate length (äh) |- | Männer | {{Inline audio|De-Männer.ogg}} | men | short [ɛ] – "ä" often pronounced like short [ɛ] |- | spät | {{Inline audio|De-spät.ogg}} | late | long [ɛː] – "ä" with "t" at the end, vowel length marked by "h" or final consonant |- | zählen | {{Inline audio|De-zählen.ogg}} | to count | long [ɛː] – "äh" signals length |- | hätte | {{Inline audio|De-hätte.ogg}} | would have | short [ɛ] – subjunctive form with short vowel |- | Öl | {{Inline audio|De-Öl.ogg}} | oil | long [øː] – stressed and in open syllable |- | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | twelve | short [œ] – followed by consonant cluster |- | schön | {{Inline audio|De-schön.ogg}} | beautiful | long [øː] – "ö" often lengthened before "n" |- | können | {{Inline audio|De-können.ogg}} | can (plural/infinitive) | short [œ] – doubled consonant shortens vowel |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | long [øː] – stressed vowel in open syllable |- | Tür | {{Inline audio|De-Tür.ogg}} | door | long [yː] – "ü" in stressed syllable, lengthened |- | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | five | short [ʏ] – closed syllable with consonant cluster |- | früh | {{Inline audio|De-früh.ogg}} | early | long [yː] – "üh" indicates length |- | Schüler | {{Inline audio|De-Schüler.ogg}} | pupil / student | long [yː] – vowel length marked by "h" |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | short [ʏ] – typical short "ü" |- | Straße | {{Inline audio|De-Straße.ogg}} | street | "ß" = [s] – sharp voiceless "s", vowel before is long |- | groß | {{Inline audio|De-groß.ogg}} | big / tall | "ß" = [s] – lengthens preceding vowel |- | heiß | {{Inline audio|De-heiß.ogg}} | hot | "ß" = [s] – marks preceding diphthong length |- | Fuß | {{Inline audio|De-Fuß.ogg}} | foot | "ß" = [s] – preceding vowel long [uː] |- | weiß | {{Inline audio|De-weiß.ogg}} | white | "ß" = [s] – diphthong [aɪ̯] + [s] |} ==== {{Inline audio|De-Buchstabiertafel.ogg|Buchstabiertafel}} – Spelling alphabet ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Phoneme ! Placeholder word ! Pronunciation ! Use/Notes |- | A | Anton | {{Inline audio|De-Anton.ogg}} | |- | Ä | Ärger | {{Inline audio|De-Ärger.ogg}} | |- | B | Berta | | |- | C | Cäsar | {{Inline audio|De-Caesar.ogg}} | |- | Ch | Charlotte | {{Inline audio|De-Charlotte.ogg}} | |- | D | Dora | | |- | E | Emil | {{Inline audio|De-Emil.ogg}} | |- | F | Friedrich | {{Inline audio|De-Friedrich.ogg}} | |- | G | Gustav | {{Inline audio|De-Gustav.ogg}} | |- | H | Heinrich | {{Inline audio|De-Heinrich.ogg}} | |- | I | Ida | {{Inline audio|De-Ida.ogg}} | |- | J | Julius | {{Inline audio|De-Julius.ogg}} | |- | K | Kaufmann | {{Inline audio|De-Kaufmann.ogg}} | |- | L | Ludwig | {{Inline audio|De-Ludwig.ogg}} | |- | M | Martha | {{Inline audio|De-Martha.ogg}} | |- | N | Nordpol | {{Inline audio|De-Nordpol.ogg}} | |- | O | Otto | {{Inline audio|De-Otto.ogg}} | |- | Ö | Ökonom | {{Inline audio|De-Ökonom.ogg}} | |- | P | Paula | {{Inline audio|De-Paula.ogg}} | |- | Q | Quelle | {{Inline audio|De-Quelle.ogg}} | |- | R | Richard | {{Inline audio|De-Richard.ogg}} | |- | S | Samuel | {{Inline audio|De-Samuel.ogg}} | |- | Sch | Schule | {{Inline audio|De-Schule.ogg}} | |- | ß | Eszett | {{Inline audio|De-Eszett.ogg}} | |- | T | Theodor | {{Inline audio|De-Theodor.ogg}} | |- | U | Ulrich | {{Inline audio|De-Ulrich.ogg}} | |- | Ü | Übermut | {{Inline audio|De-Übermut.ogg}} | |- | V | Viktor | {{Inline audio|De-Viktor.ogg}} | |- | W | Wilhelm | {{Inline audio|De-Wilhelm.ogg}} | |- | X | Xanthippe | {{Inline audio|De-Xanthippe.ogg}} | |- | Y | Ypsilon | {{Inline audio|De-Ypsilon.ogg}} | |- | Z | Zacharias | {{Inline audio|De-Zacharias.ogg}} | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your name in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Wie heißt du?'' |{{Inline audio|}} |''What is your name?'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Jan, aber du kannst mich Hans nennen. Heinrich–Anton–Nordpol–Samuel'' | |''My name is Jan, but you can call me Hans. H–A–N–S.'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Juan. Julius–Ulrich–Anton–Nordpol.'' | |''My name is Juan. J–U–A–N.'' | |- |... | | | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your'' ''place of origin in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronuncation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Woher kommst du?'' | |''Where do you come from?'' | |- |''Ich komme aus Vojníkov. Viktor–Otto–Julius–Nordpol–Ida–Kaufmann–Otto–Viktor.'' | |''I come from Vojníkov. V–O–J–N–I–K–O–V.'' | |- | | | | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Grundzahlen.ogg|Grundzahlen}} – Cardinal numbers === '''''Note:''' Numbers and years are pronounced the same way in German.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Německá čísla |- ! Number ! German ! Pronunciation ! Notes |- | 0 | null | {{Inline audio|De-null.ogg}} | |- | 1 | eins | {{Inline audio|De-eins.ogg}} | |- | 2 | zwei | {{Inline audio|De-zwei.ogg}} | |- | 3 | drei | {{Inline audio|De-drei.ogg}} | |- | 4 | vier | {{Inline audio|De-vier.ogg}} | |- | 5 | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | |- | 6 | sechs | {{Inline audio|De-sechs.ogg}} | |- | 7 | sieben | {{Inline audio|De-sieben.ogg}} | |- | 8 | acht | {{Inline audio|De-acht.ogg}} | |- | 9 | neun | {{Inline audio|De-neun.ogg}} | |- | 10 | zehn | {{Inline audio|De-zehn.ogg}} | |- | 11 | elf | {{Inline audio|De-elf.ogg}} | |- | 12 | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | |- | 13 | dreizehn | {{Inline audio|De-dreizehn.ogg}} | |- | 14 | vierzehn | {{Inline audio|De-vierzehn.ogg}} | |- | 15 | fünfzehn | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzehn.ogg}} | |- | 16 | sechzehn | {{Inline audio|De-sechzehn.ogg}} | |- | 17 | siebzehn | {{Inline audio|De-siebzehn.ogg}} | |- | 18 | achtzehn | {{Inline audio|De-achtzehn.ogg}} | |- | 19 | neunzehn | {{Inline audio|De-neunzehn.ogg}} | |- | 20 | zwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 21 | einundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-einundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 22 | zweiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zweiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 23 | dreiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-dreiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- |24 |vierundzwanzig | | |- |25 |fünfundzwanzig | | |- |26 |sechsundzwanzig | | |- |27 |siebenundzwanzig | | |- |28 |achtundzwanzig | | |- |29 |neunundzwanzig | | |- | 30 | dreißig | {{Inline audio|De-dreißig.ogg}} | |- |31 |einunddreißig | | |- | 40 | vierzig | {{Inline audio|De-vierzig.ogg}} | |- | 50 | fünfzig | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzig.ogg}} | |- | 60 | sechzig | {{Inline audio|De-sechzig.ogg}} | |- | 70 | siebzig | {{Inline audio|De-siebzig.ogg}} | |- | 80 | achtzig | {{Inline audio|De-achtzig.ogg}} | |- | 90 | neunzig | {{Inline audio|De-neunzig.ogg}} | |- | 100 | hundert | {{Inline audio|De-hundert.ogg}} | |- | 101 | hunderteins | {{Inline audio|De-hunderteins.ogg}} | |- |102 |hundertzwei | | |- |103 |hundertdrei | | |- |104 |hundertvier | | |- |105 |hundertfünf | | |- |106 |hundertsechs | | |- | 111 | hundertelf | {{Inline audio|De-hundertelf.ogg}} | |- | 200 | zweihundert | {{Inline audio|De-zweihundert.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 | tausend | {{Inline audio|De-tausend.ogg}} | |- | 10 000 | zehntausend | {{Inline audio|De-zehntausend.ogg}} | |- | 100 000 | hunderttausend | {{Inline audio|De-hunderttausend.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 000 | Million | {{Inline audio|De-Million.ogg}} | |- | 1 234 567 | Million zweihundertvierunddreißigtausendfünfhundertsiebenundsechzig | | |- | 2 000 000 | zwei Millionen | | From here onwards, there are two words. One for a million and the other for the rest. |- | 1 000 000 000 | Milliarde | {{Inline audio|De-Milliarde.ogg}} | |- | 2 500 000 000 | zwei Milliarden fünfhundert Millionen | | |- |250 386 536 253 |zweihundertfünfzig Milliarden dreihundertsechsundachtzig Millionen fünfhundertsechsunddreißigtausend zweihundertdreiundfünfzig | | |- | 1 000 000 000 000 | Billion | {{Inline audio|De-Billion.ogg}} | |- |200 000 000 000 000 |zweihundert Billionen | | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben B – Words with the letter B === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Ball | {{Inline audio|De-Ball.ogg}} | ball | [b] – at the beginning of the word, voiced |- | bleiben | {{Inline audio|De-bleiben.ogg}} | to stay | [b] – in the middle of the word, voiced |- | ab | {{Inline audio|De-ab.ogg}} | off / from | [p] – at the end of the word, final devoicing |- | ob | {{Inline audio|De-ob.ogg}} | whether / if | [p] – final position, devoiced |- | schreiben | {{Inline audio|De-schreiben.ogg}} | to write | [b] – inside the word, voiced |} === Was wirst du dieses Wochenende machen? – What will you do this weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Am Freitag sind wir noch zu Hause, da wir ein klassisches Konzert besuchen. Am Samstag fahren wir Richtung Norden und übernachten in Görlitz. Wir möchten die Stadt erkunden, da wir bisher nur den polnischen Teil kennen. Ich hoffe, dass wir im nahegelegenen See baden können. Am Sonntag fahren wir zurück nach Hause. |{{Inline audio|}} |We will still be at home on Friday because we are going to a classical music concert. On Saturday we are heading north and will sleep in Görlitz. We would like to explore this city because we only know the Polish part of it. I hope it will be possible to swim in the nearby lake. We are returning home on Sunday. | |- |Und was werden Sie tun? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what will you do? |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben C – Words with the letter C === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Cent | {{Inline audio|De-Cent.ogg}} | cent | [ts] – before "e" |- | circa | {{Inline audio|De-circa.ogg}} | approximately / about | [ts] – before "i" |- | Celsius | {{Inline audio|De-Celsius.ogg}} | Celsius | [ts] – before "e" |- | Cyber | {{Inline audio|}} | cyber | [ts] – before "y" |- | City | {{Inline audio|De-City.ogg}} | city | [ts] – before "i", often from English |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | [k] – loanword from French |- | Computer | {{Inline audio|De-Computer.ogg}} | computer | [k] – loanword from English |- | Clown | {{Inline audio|De-Clown.ogg}} | clown | [k] – loanword from English |- | Cola | {{Inline audio|De-Cola.ogg}} | cola | [k] – loanword, open syllable |- | Club | {{Inline audio|De-Club.ogg}} | club | [k] – loanword, final "c" pronounced hard |} === Was wir am Wochenende gemacht haben – What we did on the weekend === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo, wie ging es dir? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hi, how were you? | |- |Ziemlich gut. Letztendlich haben wir das Konzert abgesagt und sind am Freitag hingegangen. Wir haben die Katzennäpfe gefüllt und sind zum Konzert nach Görlitz gefahren. Schwimmen konnten wir zwar nicht, aber die Stadt war unglaublich. |{{Inline audio|}} |Pretty good. In the end, we gave up on the concert and went on Friday. We filled the cats' bowls and went to the concert in Görlitz. We couldn't swim, but the city was amazing. |- |Und was hast du gemacht? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what were you doing? | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben D – Words with the letter D === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Dach | {{Inline audio|De-Dach.ogg}} | roof | [d] – at the beginning, voiced |- | Dame | {{Inline audio|De-Dame.ogg}} | lady | [d] – initial position, voiced |- | denken | {{Inline audio|De-denken.ogg}} | to think | [d] – inside the word, voiced |- | Bruder | {{Inline audio|De-Bruder.ogg}} | brother | [d] – medial, voiced |- | Kinder | {{Inline audio|De-Kinder.ogg}} | children | [d] – medial, voiced |- | und | {{Inline audio|De-und.ogg}} | and | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Hund | {{Inline audio|De-Hund.ogg}} | dog | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | country / land | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Abend | {{Inline audio|De-Abend.ogg}} | evening | [t] – final "d" pronounced [t] |- | Bild | {{Inline audio|De-Bild.ogg}} | picture | [t] – final position, devoiced |} === Früchte – Fruits === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Picture ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Notes |- | [[File:Idared pomme.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Apfel | {{Inline audio|De-Apfel.ogg}} | apple | |- | [[File:Pear DS.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Birne | {{Inline audio|De-Birne.ogg}} | pear | |- | [[File:Cherry Stella444.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Kirsche | {{Inline audio|De-Kirsche.ogg}} | cherry | |- |[[File:Sloes, Swindon and Cricklade Railway - geograph.org.uk - 549616.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Schlehe | |blackthorn/sloe |''Prunus spinosa'' is a thorny shrub with small, round, dark blue and very bitter fruits. It grows wild. In Czech language it is called "trnka". |- | [[File:C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Zwetschge | {{Inline audio|De-Zwetschge.ogg}} | plum/European plum |Scientifically ''Prunus domestica'' subsp. ''domestica.'' In Czech "švestka". |- | [[File:Prunes Rouge et Blanche Provence Cl J Weber (23379539230).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pflaume | {{Inline audio|De-Pflaume.ogg}} | plum | |- | | Mirabelle | {{Inline audio|De-Mirabelle.ogg}} | mirabelle | |- | [[File:Grapevine green.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Traube | {{Inline audio|De-Traube.ogg}} | grape |Also ''Weintraube''. |- | [[File:Gâteau Génoise Chocolat (31315341).jpeg|frameless|200x200px]] | Erdbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Erdbeere.ogg}} | strawberry | |- | [[File:3. Strobery.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Himbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Himbeere.ogg}} | raspberry | |- | [[File:Blackberries by feiern1.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Brombeere | {{Inline audio|De-Brombeere.ogg}} | blackberry |- | [[File:Blueberries (52187526180).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Heidelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Heidelbeere.ogg}} | blueberry | |- | [[File:Currants in isolation (15296707472).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Johannisbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Johannisbeere.ogg}} | currant |- | [[File:Gooseberries.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] | Stachelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Stachelbeere.ogg}} | gooseberry | |- | [[File:Cucumis melo var. reticulatus (photo by Scott Bauer).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Melone | {{Inline audio|De-Melone.ogg}} | melon |Also ''Zuckermelone''. |- | [[File:Wassermelone (14439653646).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Wassermelone | {{Inline audio|De-Wassermelone.ogg}} | watermelon | |- | [[File:Peach close-up2.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pfirsich | {{Inline audio|De-Pfirsich.ogg}} | peach | |- | | Aprikose | {{Inline audio|De-Aprikose.ogg}} | apricot |- | | Nektarine | {{Inline audio|De-Nektarine.ogg}} | nectarine |- | | Orange | {{Inline audio|De-Orange.ogg}} | orange |- | | Mandarine | {{Inline audio|De-Mandarine.ogg}} | mandarin / tangerine |- | | Zitrone | {{Inline audio|De-Zitrone.ogg}} | lemon |- | | Banane | {{Inline audio|De-Banane.ogg}} | banana |- | | Kiwi | {{Inline audio|De-Kiwi.ogg}} | kiwi |- | | Ananas | {{Inline audio|De-Ananas.ogg}} | pineapple |} === Wörter mit dem Buchstaben E – Words with the letter E === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | lesen | {{Inline audio|De-lesen.ogg}} | to read | [eː] – long vowel in open syllable |- | sehen | {{Inline audio|De-sehen.ogg}} | to see | [eː] – long vowel before "h" |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher | [eː] – stressed long vowel |- | Bett | {{Inline audio|De-Bett.ogg}} | bed | [ɛ] – short vowel, closed syllable with double consonant |- | Ende | {{Inline audio|De-Ende.ogg}} | end | [ɛ] – short vowel in stressed syllable |- | essen | {{Inline audio|De-essen.ogg}} | to eat | [ɛ] – short vowel, double consonant indicates shortness |- | bitte | {{Inline audio|De-bitte.ogg}} | please | [ə] – final unstressed "e" pronounced schwa |- | alle | {{Inline audio|De-alle.ogg}} | all | [ə] – final "e" as schwa |- | Name | {{Inline audio|De-Name.ogg}} | name | [ə] – final "e" reduced to schwa |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | final "é" (from French) often not pronounced, silent |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Grüß Gott. | |Greetings. | |- |Hey, Peter. | |Hi, Peter. | |- |Wie war dein Wochenende? | |How was your weekend? | |- |Am Samstag war ich zu Hause, da ich die Dokumente meines Großvaters digitalisieren wollte, und ruhte mich nachmittags aus. Am Sonntag machte ich dann einen Ausflug. Zuerst besuchte ich die Steinspirale in Úvaly und dann den Steinkreis in Kutná Hora. Ursprünglich wollte ich das Wochenende bis heute verlängern, aber da es mir nicht gut ging, fuhr ich erst am Sonntag wieder nach Hause. | |On Saturday, I was at home, having decided to digitize my grandfather's documents, and I rested in the afternoon. Then on Sunday, I went on a trip. First, I visited the stone spiral in Úvaly, and then I went to see the stone circle in Kutná Hora. Initially, I wanted to extend the weekend until today, but since I wasn't feeling well, I returned home on Sunday. | |- |Und haben Sie in den Dokumenten Ihres Großvaters etwas Interessantes entdeckt? | |And did you discover anything interesting in your grandfather's documents? | |- |Ja, ich habe dort Diplome für die Absolvierung einzelner Studienfächer gefunden. Das heißt, man hatte in den 40er Jahren nicht nur ein Abschlusszeugnis für das Studium, sondern man erhielt für jedes absolvierte Fach ein Diplom. | |Yes, I found diplomas there for completing individual subjects at university. This means that in the 1940s, they didn't just have a final diploma for their university studies, but they received a diploma for each subject completed. | |- |Was hat Ihr Großvater studiert? | |What did your grandfather study? | |- |Das Fachgebiet hieß Versicherungsstatistik oder so ähnlich. Ich glaube aber, dass er ein klassischer Statistiker oder Mathematiker war, denn er verdiente seinen Lebensunterhalt später als Programmierer und führte Computer in die Lagerverwaltung von Unternehmen ein. | |The field was called statistics-insurance, or something like that. But I think he was a classic statistician or mathematician, because he then made a living as a programmer and introduced computers into companies' warehouse management. | |- |Und wie ging es dir? | |And how were you? | |- |Ich war das ganze Wochenende zu Hause, ich hatte Zahnschmerzen. | |I was home all weekend, I had a toothache. | |- |Es tut mir Leid. | |I'm sorry. | |} === Beim Autoservice – At the car service === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Guten Tag | |Good day | |- |Guten Tag, wie kann ich Ihnen helfen? | |Hello, how can I help you? | |- |Sie müssen sich mein Auto ansehen. | |I need you to look at my car. | |- |Was ist daran falsch? | |What's wrong with it? | |- |Beim Schalten höre ich manchmal ein furchtbares Geräusch, als würde es einfach gegen die Gänge gehen. Das passiert nur manchmal beim Rückwärtsfahren, aber auch beim Schalten auf der Autobahn bei höherer Geschwindigkeit. | |When I shift gears, I sometimes hear a terrible noise, like it's just going against the gears. It only happens sometimes when I'm in reverse, but also when I'm shifting gears on the highway at higher speeds. | |} === Personalpronomen – Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | ich | {{Inline audio|De-ich.ogg}} | I | 1st person singular |- | du | {{Inline audio|De-du.ogg}} | you | 2nd person singular (informal) |- | er | {{Inline audio|De-er.ogg}} | he | 3rd person singular masculine |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | she | 3rd person singular feminine |- | es | {{Inline audio|De-es.ogg}} | it | 3rd person singular neuter |- | wir | {{Inline audio|De-wir.ogg}} | we | 1st person plural |- | ihr | {{Inline audio|De-ihr.ogg}} | you (plural) | 2nd person plural informal |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | they | 3rd person plural |- | Sie | {{Inline audio|De-Sie.ogg}} | you (formal) | Singular & plural, polite form |} === Personalpronomen in Sätzen – Personal pronouns in sentences === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Wie heißt du? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Informal question |- | Ich heiße Anna. | {{Inline audio|}} | My name is Anna. | Answer, introduce yourself |- | Wie heißen Sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Formal question |- | Ich bin Herr Müller. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am Mr. Müller. | Formal introduction |- | Woher kommst du? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you from? | Informal question about origin |- | Ich komme aus Deutschland. | {{Inline audio|}} | I come from Germany. | Answer about origin |- | Was bist du von Beruf? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your profession? | Informal question about job |- | Ich bin Lehrer. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am a teacher. | Answer about profession |- | Was machen Sie beruflich? | {{Inline audio|}} | What do you do for a living? | More formal/professional |- | Ich arbeite als Ingenieur. | {{Inline audio|}} | I work as an engineer. | Formal/professional answer |- | Wer ist er? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is he? | Question about a male person |- | Er heißt Peter. | {{Inline audio|}} | His name is Peter. | Answer with masculine pronoun |- | Wer ist sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is she? | Question about a female person |- | Sie ist meine Freundin. | {{Inline audio|}} | She is my friend. | Feminine pronoun |- | Wer ist es? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is it? | Question about neuter/unknown subject |- | Es ist ein Kind. | {{Inline audio|}} | It is a child. | Neuter pronoun |- | Wer sind wir? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are we? | Question with "wir" (we) |- | Wir sind Studenten. | {{Inline audio|}} | We are students. | 1st person plural |- | Wo seid ihr? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you (plural)? | Question with "ihr" (you, plural informal) |- | Ihr seid meine Freunde. | {{Inline audio|}} | You are my friends. | 2nd person plural informal |- | Wer sind sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are they? | Question with "sie" (they) |- | Sie kommen aus Spanien. | {{Inline audio|}} | They come from Spain. | 3rd person plural |} === Länder – Countries === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Deutschland | {{Inline audio|De-Deutschland.ogg}} | Germany | |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | |- | Schweiz | {{Inline audio|De-Schweiz.ogg}} | Switzerland | |- | Tschechien | {{Inline audio|De-Tschechien.ogg}} | Czech Republic | |- | Slowakei | {{Inline audio|De-Slowakei.ogg}} | Slovakia | |- | Polen | {{Inline audio|De-Polen.ogg}} | Poland | |- | Ungarn | {{Inline audio|De-Ungarn.ogg}} | Hungary | |- | Frankreich | {{Inline audio|De-Frankreich.ogg}} | France | |- | Italien | {{Inline audio|De-Italien.ogg}} | Italy | |- | Spanien | {{Inline audio|De-Spanien.ogg}} | Spain | |- | Portugal | {{Inline audio|De-Portugal.ogg}} | Portugal | |- | Griechenland | {{Inline audio|De-Griechenland.ogg}} | Greece | |- | Dänemark | {{Inline audio|De-Dänemark.ogg}} | Denmark | |- | Schweden | {{Inline audio|De-Schweden.ogg}} | Sweden | |- | Norwegen | {{Inline audio|De-Norwegen.ogg}} | Norway | |- | Finnland | {{Inline audio|De-Finnland.ogg}} | Finland | |- | Russland | {{Inline audio|De-Russland.ogg}} | Russia | |- | China | {{Inline audio|De-China.ogg}} | China | |- | Australien | {{Inline audio|De-Australien.ogg}} | Australia | |- | Vereinigte Staaten | {{Inline audio|De-Vereinigte Staaten.ogg}} | United States | |} === Städte – Towns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | |- | Bratislava | {{Inline audio|De-Bratislava.ogg}} | Bratislava | |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | |- | Budapest | {{Inline audio|De-Budapest.ogg}} | Budapest | |- | Paris | {{Inline audio|De-Paris.ogg}} | Paris | |- | Rom | {{Inline audio|De-Rom.ogg}} | Rome | |- | Madrid | {{Inline audio|De-Madrid.ogg}} | Madrid | |- | Lissabon | {{Inline audio|De-Lissabon.ogg}} | Lisbon | |- | Athen | {{Inline audio|De-Athen.ogg}} | Athens | |- | Kopenhagen | {{Inline audio|De-Kopenhagen.ogg}} | Copenhagen | |- | Stockholm | {{Inline audio|De-Stockholm.ogg}} | Stockholm | |- | Oslo | {{Inline audio|De-Oslo.ogg}} | Oslo | |- | Helsinki | {{Inline audio|De-Helsinki.ogg}} | Helsinki | |- | Moskau | {{Inline audio|De-Moskau.ogg}} | Moscow | |- | Peking | {{Inline audio|De-Peking.ogg}} | Beijing | |- | Canberra | {{Inline audio|De-Canberra.ogg}} | Canberra | |- | Washington | {{Inline audio|De-Washington.ogg}} | Washington, D.C. | |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | Germany |- | Hamburg | {{Inline audio|De-Hamburg.ogg}} | Hamburg | Germany |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | Germany |- | Köln | {{Inline audio|De-Köln.ogg}} | Cologne | Germany |- | Frankfurt am Main | {{Inline audio|De-Frankfurt am Main.ogg}} | Frankfurt am Main | Germany |- | Stuttgart | {{Inline audio|De-Stuttgart.ogg}} | Stuttgart | Germany |- | Düsseldorf | {{Inline audio|De-Düsseldorf.ogg}} | Düsseldorf | Germany |- | Leipzig | {{Inline audio|De-Leipzig.ogg}} | Leipzig | Germany |- | Dortmund | {{Inline audio|De-Dortmund.ogg}} | Dortmund | Germany |- | Essen | {{Inline audio|De-Essen.ogg}} | Essen | Germany |- | Bremen | {{Inline audio|De-Bremen.ogg}} | Bremen | Germany |- | Dresden | {{Inline audio|De-Dresden.oga}} | Dresden | Germany |- | Hannover | {{Inline audio|De-Hannover.ogg}} | Hanover | Germany |- | Nürnberg | {{Inline audio|De-Nürnberg.ogg}} | Nuremberg | Germany |- | Duisburg | {{Inline audio|De-Duisburg.ogg}} | Duisburg | Germany |- | Bochum | {{Inline audio|De-Bochum.ogg}} | Bochum | Germany |- | Wuppertal | {{Inline audio|De-Wuppertal.ogg}} | Wuppertal | Germany |- | Bielefeld | {{Inline audio|De-Bielefeld.ogg}} | Bielefeld | Germany |- | Bonn | {{Inline audio|De-Bonn.ogg}} | Bonn | Germany |- | Münster | {{Inline audio|De-Münster.ogg}} | Münster | Germany |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | Austria |- | Graz | {{Inline audio|De-Graz.ogg}} | Graz | Austria |- | Linz | {{Inline audio|De-Linz.ogg}} | Linz | Austria |- | Salzburg | {{Inline audio|De-Salzburg.ogg}} | Salzburg | Austria |- | Innsbruck | {{Inline audio|De-Innsbruck.ogg}} | Innsbruck | Austria |- | Klagenfurt | {{Inline audio|De-Klagenfurt.ogg}} | Klagenfurt | Austria |- | Villach | {{Inline audio|De-Villach.ogg}} | Villach | Austria |- | Wels | {{Inline audio|De-Wels.ogg}} | Wels | Austria |- | Sankt Pölten | {{Inline audio|De-at St Pölten.ogg}} | St. Pölten | Austria |- | Dornbirn | {{Inline audio|De-Dornbirn.ogg}} | Dornbirn | Austria |- | Zürich | {{Inline audio|De-Zürich.ogg}} | Zurich | Switzerland |- | Genf | {{Inline audio|De-Genf.ogg}} | Geneva | Switzerland |- | Basel | {{Inline audio|De-Basel.ogg}} | Basel | Switzerland |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | Switzerland |- | Lausanne | {{Inline audio|De-Lausanne.ogg}} | Lausanne | Switzerland |- | Winterthur | {{Inline audio|De-Winterthur.ogg}} | Winterthur | Switzerland |- | Luzern | {{Inline audio|De-Luzern.ogg}} | Lucerne | Switzerland |- | St. Gallen | {{Inline audio|}} | St. Gallen | Switzerland |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | Czech Republic – Praha |- | Brünn | {{Inline audio|De-Brünn.ogg}} | Brno | Czech Republic – Brno |- | Pilsen | {{Inline audio|De-Pilsen.ogg}} | Plzeň | Czech Republic – Plzeň |- | Budweis | {{Inline audio|De-Budweis.ogg}} | České Budějovice | Czech Republic – České Budějovice |- | Olmütz | {{Inline audio|De-Olmütz.ogg}} | Olomouc | Czech Republic – Olomouc |- | Reichenberg | {{Inline audio|}} | Liberec | Czech Republic – Liberec |- | Iglau | {{Inline audio|De-Iglau.ogg}} | Jihlava | Czech Republic – Jihlava |- | Eger | {{Inline audio|De-Eger.ogg}} | Cheb | Czech Republic – Cheb |- | Karlsbad | {{Inline audio|De-Karlsbad.ogg}} | Karlovy Vary | Czech Republic – Karlovy Vary |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | Poland – Warszawa |- | Krakau | {{Inline audio|De-Krakau.ogg}} | Kraków | Poland – Kraków |- | Danzig | {{Inline audio|De-Danzig.ogg}} | Gdańsk | Poland – Gdańsk |- | Breslau | {{Inline audio|De-Breslau.ogg}} | Wrocław | Poland – Wrocław |- | Stettin | {{Inline audio|De-Stettin.ogg}} | Szczecin | Poland – Szczecin |- | Posen | {{Inline audio|De-Posen.ogg}} | Poznań | Poland – Poznań |- | Kattowitz | {{Inline audio|De-Kattowitz.ogg}} | Katowice | Poland – Katowice |- | Allenstein | {{Inline audio|De-Allenstein.ogg}} | Olsztyn | Poland – Olsztyn |- | Oppeln | {{Inline audio|De-Oppeln.ogg}} | Opole | Poland – Opole |} === Berufe – Professions === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher (male) | |- | Lehrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrerin.ogg}} | teacher (female) | |- | Arzt | {{Inline audio|De-Arzt.ogg}} | doctor (male) | |- | Ärztin | {{Inline audio|De-Ärztin.ogg}} | doctor (female) | |- | Ingenieur | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieur.ogg}} | engineer (male) | |- | Ingenieurin | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieurin.ogg}} | engineer (female) | |- | Verkäufer | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäufer.ogg}} | salesman | |- | Verkäuferin | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäuferin.ogg}} | saleswoman | |- | Kellner | {{Inline audio|De-Kellner.ogg}} | waiter | |- | Kellnerin | {{Inline audio|De-Kellnerin.ogg}} | waitress | |- | Polizist | {{Inline audio|De-Polizist.ogg}} | policeman | |- | Polizistin | {{Inline audio|De-Polizistin.ogg}} | policewoman | |- | Journalist | {{Inline audio|De-Journalist.ogg}} | journalist (male) | |- | Journalistin | {{Inline audio|De-Journalistin.ogg}} | journalist (female) | |- | Bauer | {{Inline audio|De-Bauer.ogg}} | farmer (male) | |- | Bäuerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäuerin.ogg}} | farmer (female) | |- | Student | {{Inline audio|De-Student.ogg}} | student (male) | |- | Studentin | {{Inline audio|De-Studentin.ogg}} | student (female) | |- | Künstler | {{Inline audio|De-Künstler.ogg}} | artist (male) | |- | Künstlerin | {{Inline audio|De-Künstlerin.ogg}} | artist (female) | |- | Programmierer | {{Inline audio|De-Programmierer.ogg}} | programmer (male) | |- | Programmiererin | {{Inline audio|De-Programmiererin.ogg}} | programmer (female) | |- | Manager | {{Inline audio|De-Manager.ogg}} | manager (male) | |- | Managerin | {{Inline audio|De-Managerin.ogg}} | manager (female) | |- | Fahrer | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrer.ogg}} | driver (male) | |- | Fahrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrerin.ogg}} | driver (female) | |- | Musiker | {{Inline audio|De-Musiker.ogg}} | musician (male) | |- | Musikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Musikerin.ogg}} | musician (female) | |- | Schauspieler | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspieler.ogg}} | actor | |- | Schauspielerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspielerin.ogg}} | actress | |- | Koch | {{Inline audio|De-Koch.ogg}} | cook (male) | |- | Köchin | {{Inline audio|De-Köchin.ogg}} | cook (female) | |- | Architekt | {{Inline audio|De-Architekt.ogg}} | architect (male) | |- | Architektin | {{Inline audio|De-Architektin.ogg}} | architect (female) | |- | Bibliothekar | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekar.ogg}} | librarian (male) | |- | Bibliothekarin | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekarin.ogg}} | librarian (female) | |- | Pilot | {{Inline audio|De-Pilot.ogg}} | pilot (male) | |- | Pilotin | {{Inline audio|De-Pilotin.ogg}} | pilot (female) | |- | Krankenpfleger | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenpfleger.ogg}} | nurse (male) | |- | Krankenschwester | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenschwester.ogg}} | nurse (female) | |- | Schneider | {{Inline audio|De-Schneider.ogg}} | tailor (male) | |- | Schneiderin | {{Inline audio|De-Schneiderin.ogg}} | tailor (female) | |- | Maler | {{Inline audio|De-Maler.ogg}} | painter (male) | |- | Malerin | {{Inline audio|De-Malerin.ogg}} | painter (female) | |- | Mechaniker | {{Inline audio|De-Mechaniker.ogg}} | mechanic (male) | |- | Mechanikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Mechanikerin.ogg}} | mechanic (female) | |- | Elektriker | {{Inline audio|De-Elektriker.ogg}} | electrician (male) | |- | Elektrikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Elektrikerin.ogg}} | electrician (female) | |- | Bäcker | {{Inline audio|De-Bäcker.ogg}} | baker (male) | |- | Bäckerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäckerin.ogg}} | baker (female) | |- | Metzger | {{Inline audio|De-Metzger.ogg}} | butcher (male) | |- | Metzgerin | {{Inline audio|}} | butcher (female) | |- | Forscher | {{Inline audio|De-Forscher.ogg}} | researcher (male) | |- | Forscherin | {{Inline audio|De-Forscherin.ogg}} | researcher (female) | |- | Fotograf | {{Inline audio|De-Fotograf.ogg}} | photographer (male) | |- | Fotografin | {{Inline audio|De-Fotografin.ogg}} | photographer (female) | |- | Designer | {{Inline audio|De-Designer.ogg}} | designer (male) | |- | Designerin | {{Inline audio|De-Designerin.ogg}} | designer (female) | |- | Schriftsteller | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftsteller.ogg}} | writer (male) | |- | Schriftstellerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftstellerin.ogg}} | writer (female) | |} === Fragen und Antworten – Questions and answers === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | | |What is your name? | |- | | |My name is Hans. | |- | | |Where do you come from? | |- | | |I come from Spain. | |- | | |Who is he? | |- | | |That is my brother. | |} == Texts == [[Category:Audio-visual German language materials|Pronunciation]] [[Category:Pronunciation]] lhy6dz6h1r3myd6fmagndidt7xr7wx9 2816809 2816806 2026-06-25T10:12:02Z Juandev 2651 /* Früchte – Fruits */ +some more fruits 2816809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{non-formal education}}{{languages}}{{0% done}}{{German}} == Words/Phrases == === {{Inline audio|De-Grüße.ogg|Grüße}} – Greetings === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronanciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo |{{Inline audio|De-Hallo.ogg}} |Hello | |- |Hi |{{Inline audio|De-hi.ogg}} |Hi |informal |- |Hey |{{Inline audio|De-hey.ogg}} |Hey |Informal, mostly among friends |- |Guten Tag |{{Inline audio|De-guten Tag2.ogg}} |Good day |Polite, formal |- |Tag |{{Inline audio|De-Tag2.ogg}} |day |colloquially |- |Guten Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-guten Morgen2.ogg}} |Good morning |Until 11 a.m. |- |Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-Morgen2.ogg}} |Morning |colloquially |- |Guten Mittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good noon |Rarely used, mostly literal |- |Guten Nachmittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good afternoon |Rarely used |- |Guten Abend |{{Inline audio|De-guten Abend.ogg}} |Good evening |From 6 p.m. |- |N‘Abend! | |evening |colloquially, Northern Germany |- |Servus |{{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}} |Hello / Hi |Informal, used in southern Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland |- |Grüß dich |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Informal, friendly |- |Grüß Gott |{{Inline audio|De-grüß Gott.ogg}} |Greetings / God bless you |Southern Germany, Austria, Bavaria; formal or informal |- |Moin |{{Inline audio|De-moin.ogg}} |Hi / Hello |Northern Germany, any time of day |- |Na? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hey? / What’s up? |Informal, very casual |- |Wie geht’s? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht’s.ogg}} |How are you? |Informal |- |Wie geht es Ihnen? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht es Ihnen.ogg}} |How are you? |Formal |- |Alles klar? |{{Inline audio|}} |All good? / Everything okay? |Informal |- |Was geht? |{{Inline audio|}} |What’s up? |Informal, youth slang |- |Was machst du? |{{Inline audio|}} |What are you doing? | |- |Lange nicht gesehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Long time no see! | |- |Schön dich zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Informal |- |Schön Sie zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Formal |- |Willkommen! |{{Inline audio|De-willkommen.ogg}} |Welcome! | |- |Herzlich willkommen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Warm welcome! |Formal, polite |- |Grüezi |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Switzerland |} === {{Inline audio|De-Abschiede.ogg|Abschiede}} – Farewells === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German !! Pronunciation !! English !! Use/Notes |- | Auf Wiedersehen || {{Inline audio|De-auf Wiedersehen.oga}}||Goodbye || Formal |- | Auf Wiederschauen || {{Inline audio|}}||Goodbye || Formal, mostly in Bavaria and Austria. |- | Tschüss || {{Inline audio|De-tschüs2.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, very common |- | Tschö || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal, mainly in Cologne and Rhineland. |- |Tschüssi! || {{Inline audio|}} || Byee || inoformal, eastern Germany |- | Ciao || {{Inline audio|De-ciao.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, popular among youth. |- | Bye || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal |- | Servus || {{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southern Germany, Austria |- | Ade || {{Inline audio|De-Ade.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southwestern Germany and Switzerland. |- | Grüezi || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye/Hello || Informal, Swiss German |- | Mach’s gut || {{Inline audio|De-mach's gut.ogg}}||Take care || Informal |- | Machen Sie’s gut || {{Inline audio|}}||Take care || Formal |- | Bis bald || {{Inline audio|De-bis bald.ogg}}||See you soon || |- | Bis später || {{Inline audio|}}||See you later || When meeting later the same day. |- | Bis gleich || {{Inline audio|}}||See you in a bit || When meeting again very soon. |- | Bis dann || {{Inline audio|De-bis dann.ogg}}||See you then || Casual, used when a meeting is arranged. |- | Bis morgen || {{Inline audio|}}||See you tomorrow || |- | Wir sehen uns || {{Inline audio|}} ||See you || Casual and friendly. |- | Gute Nacht || {{Inline audio|De-Gute Nacht.ogg}}||Good night || |- | Schönen Tag noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice day || |- | Schönen Abend noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice evening || |- | Schönes Wochenende || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice weekend || |- | Frohe Feiertage || {{Inline audio|}}||Happy holidays || |} === Ich spreche kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es. – I don't speak German, but I'm learning it. === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Sprechen Sie bitte Englisch? | {{Inline audio|}} | Do you speak English, please? | |- | Ich spreche kein Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|De-Ich spreche kein Deutsch..ogg}} | I don't speak German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am learning German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch, aber ich weiß noch nicht viel. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German, but I don't know much yet. | |- | Könnten Sie bitte langsamer sprechen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Could you speak more slowly, please? | |- | Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you repeat that again? | |- | Können Sie das buchstabieren? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you spell it? | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. Ich würde Ihr Feedback schätzen. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German. I'd appreciate your feedback. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Ich heiße ....ogg|Ich heiße}} – My name is === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Jan Lochman. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is Jan Lochman. | |- |Können Sie das buchstabieren? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you spell it? | |- |Julius-Anton-Nordpol-Leerzeichen-Ludwig-Otto-Charlotte-Martha-Anton-Nordpol |{{Inline audio|}} |j-a-n-space-l-o-c-h-m-a-n | |- |Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you repeat that again? | |- |Wie heißt du? |{{Inline audio|De-Wie heißt du?.ogg}} |What is your name? | |- |Johanna |{{Inline audio|De-Johanna.ogg}} |Jane | |- |Georg |{{Inline audio|De-Georg2.ogg}} |George | |- |Maria |{{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} |Mary | |- |Johann |{{Inline audio|De-Johann.ogg}} |John | |- |Eva |{{Inline audio|De-Eva.ogg}} |Eve | |- |Peter |{{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} |Peter | |- |Hanna |{{Inline audio|}} |Hanna | |- |Anna |{{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} |Anne | |- |Paul |{{Inline audio|De-Paul.ogg}} |Paul | |} === Die häufigsten deutschen Namen – Most common German names === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | Michael | {{Inline audio|De-Michael.ogg}} | Michael | |- | Thomas | {{Inline audio|De-Thomas.ogg}} | Thomas | |- | Andreas | {{Inline audio|De-Andreas.ogg}} | Andrew | |- | Stefan | {{Inline audio|De-Stefan.ogg}} | Stephen | |- | Peter | {{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} | Peter | |- | Wolfgang | {{Inline audio|De-Wolfgang.ogg}} | Wolfgang | |- | Hans | {{Inline audio|De-Hans.ogg}} | John | |- | Klaus | {{Inline audio|De-Klaus.ogg}} | Claus / Nicholas | |- | Karl | {{Inline audio|De-Karl.ogg}} | Charles | |- | Heinz | {{Inline audio|De-Heinz.ogg}} | Henry | |- | Johannes | {{Inline audio|De-Johannes.ogg}} | John | |- | Martin | {{Inline audio|De-Martin.ogg}} | Martin | |- | Matthias | {{Inline audio|De-Matthias.ogg}} | Matthew | |- | Christian | {{Inline audio|De-Christian.ogg}} | Christian | |- | Josef | {{Inline audio|De-Josef.ogg}} | Joseph | |- | Franz | {{Inline audio|De-Franz.ogg}} | Francis | |- | Dieter | {{Inline audio|De-Dieter.ogg}} | Dieter / Derek | |- | Jürgen | {{Inline audio|De-Jürgen.ogg}} | George | |- | Uwe | {{Inline audio|De-Uwe.ogg}} | Hugh | |- | Günter | {{Inline audio|De-Günter.ogg}} | Gunther | |- | Anna | {{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} | Anna / Anne | |- | Maria | {{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} | Mary | |- | Emma | {{Inline audio|De-Emma.ogg}} | Emma | |- | Elisabeth | {{Inline audio|De-Elisabeth.ogg}} | Elizabeth | |- | Katharina | {{Inline audio|De-Katharina2.ogg}} | Catherine / Katherine | |- | Barbara | {{Inline audio|De-Barbara.ogg}} | Barbara | |- | Sabine | {{Inline audio|De-Sabine.ogg}} | Sabina | |- | Claudia | {{Inline audio|De-Claudia.ogg}} | Claudia | |- | Monika | {{Inline audio|De-Monika.ogg}} | Monica | |- | Julia | {{Inline audio|De-Julia.ogg}} | Julia | |- | Christina | {{Inline audio|De-Christina.ogg}} | Christina / Christine | |- | Angelika | {{Inline audio|De-Angelika.ogg}} | Angelica | |- | Susanne | {{Inline audio|De-Susanne.ogg}} | Susan / Suzanne | |- | Ursula | {{Inline audio|De-Ursula.ogg}} | Ursula | |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mir geht es gut. Übers Wochenende war ich bei meiner Großmutter in Westböhmen. Am Samstag besuchten wir das bayerische Städtchen Cham, wo wir uns das Zentrum ansahen und ein paar Fotos machten. Am Sonntag arbeiteten wir im Garten, pflückten Birnen und sammelten heruntergefallene Äpfel und Nüsse. Am Nachmittag besuchten wir das Jagdschloss Diana bei Rozvadov. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am fine. I was at my grandmother's in West Bohemia over the weekend. On Saturday, we visited the Bavarian town of Cham, where we looked around the center and took a few photos. On Sunday, we worked in the garden, picking pears and collecting fallen apples and nuts. In the afternoon, we visited the Diana hunting lodge near Rozvadov. | |} === Sich vorstellen – Introducing yourself === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Hans. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is John. | |- |Ich bin ein Tscheche aus Prag. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Czech from Prague. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am Spanish. | |- |Ich komme aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am from Granada. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Spanish from Granda. | |- |Ich bin ein Pole aus Breslau. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Pole from Wrocław. | |- |Ich spreche Englisch, Spanisch und ein wenig Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I speak English, Spanish and a little German. | |- |Ich spreche noch kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't speak German yet, but I'm learning? | |- |Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|De-Sprechen Sie Englisch.oga}} |Do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht. Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht, ich spreche kein Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, I don't speak German. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Alphabet.ogg|Alphabet}} – Alphabet === {{Inline audio|German alphabet-2.ogg|A – B – C – D – E – F – G – H – I – J – K – L – M – N – O – P – Q – R – S – T – U – V – W – X – Y – Z}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-a.ogg|A}} | {{Inline audio|De-B.ogg|B}} | {{Inline audio|De-C.ogg|C}} | {{Inline audio|De-D.ogg|D}} | {{Inline audio|De-e.ogg|E}} | {{Inline audio|De-f.ogg|F}} | {{Inline audio|De-g.ogg|G}} | {{Inline audio|De-h.ogg|H}} | {{Inline audio|De-i.ogg|I}} | {{Inline audio|De-j.ogg|J}} | {{Inline audio|De-k.ogg|K}} | {{Inline audio|De-l.ogg|L}} | {{Inline audio|De-m.ogg|M}} |- | {{Inline audio|De-n.ogg|N}} | {{Inline audio|De-O.ogg|O}} | {{Inline audio|De-P.ogg|P}} | {{Inline audio|De-Q.ogg|Q}} | {{Inline audio|De-r.ogg|R}} | {{Inline audio|De-S.ogg|S}} | {{Inline audio|De-t.ogg|T}} | {{Inline audio|De-u.ogg|U}} | {{Inline audio|De-v.ogg|V}} | {{Inline audio|De-w.ogg|W}} | {{Inline audio|De-x.ogg|X}} | {{Inline audio|De-y.ogg|Y}} | {{Inline audio|De-Z.ogg|Z}} |} {{Inline audio|German extra letters.ogg|Ä – Ö – Ü – ß}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-Ä.ogg|Ä}} | {{Inline audio|De-ö.ogg|Ö}} | {{Inline audio|De-Ü.ogg|Ü}} | ß |} ==== Wörter mit dem Buchstaben A – Words with the letter A ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Mann | {{Inline audio|De-Mann.ogg}} | man | short [a] – closed syllable ending in consonant |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | land / country | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Hand | {{Inline audio|De-Hand.ogg}} | hand | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Wasser | {{Inline audio|De-Wasser.ogg}} | water | short [a] – doubled consonant indicates short vowel |- | fangen | {{Inline audio|De-fangen.ogg}} | to catch | short [a] – followed by consonant cluster |- | Vater | {{Inline audio|De-Vater.ogg}} | father | long [aː] – open syllable with single consonant after |- | Saal | {{Inline audio|De-Saal.ogg}} | hall | long [aː] – "aa" indicates vowel length |- | Zahn | {{Inline audio|De-Zahn.ogg}} | tooth | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |- | haben | {{Inline audio|De-haben.ogg}} | to have | long [aː] – open syllable |- | fahren | {{Inline audio|De-fahren.ogg}} | to drive / to go | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |} ==== Wörter mit den Buchstaben ä, ö, ü und ß – Words with the letters ä, ö, ü and ß ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Bär | {{Inline audio|De-Bär.ogg}} | bear | long [ɛː] – "ä" can indicate length (äh) |- | Männer | {{Inline audio|De-Männer.ogg}} | men | short [ɛ] – "ä" often pronounced like short [ɛ] |- | spät | {{Inline audio|De-spät.ogg}} | late | long [ɛː] – "ä" with "t" at the end, vowel length marked by "h" or final consonant |- | zählen | {{Inline audio|De-zählen.ogg}} | to count | long [ɛː] – "äh" signals length |- | hätte | {{Inline audio|De-hätte.ogg}} | would have | short [ɛ] – subjunctive form with short vowel |- | Öl | {{Inline audio|De-Öl.ogg}} | oil | long [øː] – stressed and in open syllable |- | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | twelve | short [œ] – followed by consonant cluster |- | schön | {{Inline audio|De-schön.ogg}} | beautiful | long [øː] – "ö" often lengthened before "n" |- | können | {{Inline audio|De-können.ogg}} | can (plural/infinitive) | short [œ] – doubled consonant shortens vowel |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | long [øː] – stressed vowel in open syllable |- | Tür | {{Inline audio|De-Tür.ogg}} | door | long [yː] – "ü" in stressed syllable, lengthened |- | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | five | short [ʏ] – closed syllable with consonant cluster |- | früh | {{Inline audio|De-früh.ogg}} | early | long [yː] – "üh" indicates length |- | Schüler | {{Inline audio|De-Schüler.ogg}} | pupil / student | long [yː] – vowel length marked by "h" |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | short [ʏ] – typical short "ü" |- | Straße | {{Inline audio|De-Straße.ogg}} | street | "ß" = [s] – sharp voiceless "s", vowel before is long |- | groß | {{Inline audio|De-groß.ogg}} | big / tall | "ß" = [s] – lengthens preceding vowel |- | heiß | {{Inline audio|De-heiß.ogg}} | hot | "ß" = [s] – marks preceding diphthong length |- | Fuß | {{Inline audio|De-Fuß.ogg}} | foot | "ß" = [s] – preceding vowel long [uː] |- | weiß | {{Inline audio|De-weiß.ogg}} | white | "ß" = [s] – diphthong [aɪ̯] + [s] |} ==== {{Inline audio|De-Buchstabiertafel.ogg|Buchstabiertafel}} – Spelling alphabet ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Phoneme ! Placeholder word ! Pronunciation ! Use/Notes |- | A | Anton | {{Inline audio|De-Anton.ogg}} | |- | Ä | Ärger | {{Inline audio|De-Ärger.ogg}} | |- | B | Berta | | |- | C | Cäsar | {{Inline audio|De-Caesar.ogg}} | |- | Ch | Charlotte | {{Inline audio|De-Charlotte.ogg}} | |- | D | Dora | | |- | E | Emil | {{Inline audio|De-Emil.ogg}} | |- | F | Friedrich | {{Inline audio|De-Friedrich.ogg}} | |- | G | Gustav | {{Inline audio|De-Gustav.ogg}} | |- | H | Heinrich | {{Inline audio|De-Heinrich.ogg}} | |- | I | Ida | {{Inline audio|De-Ida.ogg}} | |- | J | Julius | {{Inline audio|De-Julius.ogg}} | |- | K | Kaufmann | {{Inline audio|De-Kaufmann.ogg}} | |- | L | Ludwig | {{Inline audio|De-Ludwig.ogg}} | |- | M | Martha | {{Inline audio|De-Martha.ogg}} | |- | N | Nordpol | {{Inline audio|De-Nordpol.ogg}} | |- | O | Otto | {{Inline audio|De-Otto.ogg}} | |- | Ö | Ökonom | {{Inline audio|De-Ökonom.ogg}} | |- | P | Paula | {{Inline audio|De-Paula.ogg}} | |- | Q | Quelle | {{Inline audio|De-Quelle.ogg}} | |- | R | Richard | {{Inline audio|De-Richard.ogg}} | |- | S | Samuel | {{Inline audio|De-Samuel.ogg}} | |- | Sch | Schule | {{Inline audio|De-Schule.ogg}} | |- | ß | Eszett | {{Inline audio|De-Eszett.ogg}} | |- | T | Theodor | {{Inline audio|De-Theodor.ogg}} | |- | U | Ulrich | {{Inline audio|De-Ulrich.ogg}} | |- | Ü | Übermut | {{Inline audio|De-Übermut.ogg}} | |- | V | Viktor | {{Inline audio|De-Viktor.ogg}} | |- | W | Wilhelm | {{Inline audio|De-Wilhelm.ogg}} | |- | X | Xanthippe | {{Inline audio|De-Xanthippe.ogg}} | |- | Y | Ypsilon | {{Inline audio|De-Ypsilon.ogg}} | |- | Z | Zacharias | {{Inline audio|De-Zacharias.ogg}} | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your name in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Wie heißt du?'' |{{Inline audio|}} |''What is your name?'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Jan, aber du kannst mich Hans nennen. Heinrich–Anton–Nordpol–Samuel'' | |''My name is Jan, but you can call me Hans. H–A–N–S.'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Juan. Julius–Ulrich–Anton–Nordpol.'' | |''My name is Juan. J–U–A–N.'' | |- |... | | | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your'' ''place of origin in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronuncation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Woher kommst du?'' | |''Where do you come from?'' | |- |''Ich komme aus Vojníkov. Viktor–Otto–Julius–Nordpol–Ida–Kaufmann–Otto–Viktor.'' | |''I come from Vojníkov. V–O–J–N–I–K–O–V.'' | |- | | | | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Grundzahlen.ogg|Grundzahlen}} – Cardinal numbers === '''''Note:''' Numbers and years are pronounced the same way in German.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Německá čísla |- ! Number ! German ! Pronunciation ! Notes |- | 0 | null | {{Inline audio|De-null.ogg}} | |- | 1 | eins | {{Inline audio|De-eins.ogg}} | |- | 2 | zwei | {{Inline audio|De-zwei.ogg}} | |- | 3 | drei | {{Inline audio|De-drei.ogg}} | |- | 4 | vier | {{Inline audio|De-vier.ogg}} | |- | 5 | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | |- | 6 | sechs | {{Inline audio|De-sechs.ogg}} | |- | 7 | sieben | {{Inline audio|De-sieben.ogg}} | |- | 8 | acht | {{Inline audio|De-acht.ogg}} | |- | 9 | neun | {{Inline audio|De-neun.ogg}} | |- | 10 | zehn | {{Inline audio|De-zehn.ogg}} | |- | 11 | elf | {{Inline audio|De-elf.ogg}} | |- | 12 | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | |- | 13 | dreizehn | {{Inline audio|De-dreizehn.ogg}} | |- | 14 | vierzehn | {{Inline audio|De-vierzehn.ogg}} | |- | 15 | fünfzehn | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzehn.ogg}} | |- | 16 | sechzehn | {{Inline audio|De-sechzehn.ogg}} | |- | 17 | siebzehn | {{Inline audio|De-siebzehn.ogg}} | |- | 18 | achtzehn | {{Inline audio|De-achtzehn.ogg}} | |- | 19 | neunzehn | {{Inline audio|De-neunzehn.ogg}} | |- | 20 | zwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 21 | einundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-einundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 22 | zweiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zweiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 23 | dreiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-dreiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- |24 |vierundzwanzig | | |- |25 |fünfundzwanzig | | |- |26 |sechsundzwanzig | | |- |27 |siebenundzwanzig | | |- |28 |achtundzwanzig | | |- |29 |neunundzwanzig | | |- | 30 | dreißig | {{Inline audio|De-dreißig.ogg}} | |- |31 |einunddreißig | | |- | 40 | vierzig | {{Inline audio|De-vierzig.ogg}} | |- | 50 | fünfzig | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzig.ogg}} | |- | 60 | sechzig | {{Inline audio|De-sechzig.ogg}} | |- | 70 | siebzig | {{Inline audio|De-siebzig.ogg}} | |- | 80 | achtzig | {{Inline audio|De-achtzig.ogg}} | |- | 90 | neunzig | {{Inline audio|De-neunzig.ogg}} | |- | 100 | hundert | {{Inline audio|De-hundert.ogg}} | |- | 101 | hunderteins | {{Inline audio|De-hunderteins.ogg}} | |- |102 |hundertzwei | | |- |103 |hundertdrei | | |- |104 |hundertvier | | |- |105 |hundertfünf | | |- |106 |hundertsechs | | |- | 111 | hundertelf | {{Inline audio|De-hundertelf.ogg}} | |- | 200 | zweihundert | {{Inline audio|De-zweihundert.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 | tausend | {{Inline audio|De-tausend.ogg}} | |- | 10 000 | zehntausend | {{Inline audio|De-zehntausend.ogg}} | |- | 100 000 | hunderttausend | {{Inline audio|De-hunderttausend.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 000 | Million | {{Inline audio|De-Million.ogg}} | |- | 1 234 567 | Million zweihundertvierunddreißigtausendfünfhundertsiebenundsechzig | | |- | 2 000 000 | zwei Millionen | | From here onwards, there are two words. One for a million and the other for the rest. |- | 1 000 000 000 | Milliarde | {{Inline audio|De-Milliarde.ogg}} | |- | 2 500 000 000 | zwei Milliarden fünfhundert Millionen | | |- |250 386 536 253 |zweihundertfünfzig Milliarden dreihundertsechsundachtzig Millionen fünfhundertsechsunddreißigtausend zweihundertdreiundfünfzig | | |- | 1 000 000 000 000 | Billion | {{Inline audio|De-Billion.ogg}} | |- |200 000 000 000 000 |zweihundert Billionen | | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben B – Words with the letter B === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Ball | {{Inline audio|De-Ball.ogg}} | ball | [b] – at the beginning of the word, voiced |- | bleiben | {{Inline audio|De-bleiben.ogg}} | to stay | [b] – in the middle of the word, voiced |- | ab | {{Inline audio|De-ab.ogg}} | off / from | [p] – at the end of the word, final devoicing |- | ob | {{Inline audio|De-ob.ogg}} | whether / if | [p] – final position, devoiced |- | schreiben | {{Inline audio|De-schreiben.ogg}} | to write | [b] – inside the word, voiced |} === Was wirst du dieses Wochenende machen? – What will you do this weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Am Freitag sind wir noch zu Hause, da wir ein klassisches Konzert besuchen. Am Samstag fahren wir Richtung Norden und übernachten in Görlitz. Wir möchten die Stadt erkunden, da wir bisher nur den polnischen Teil kennen. Ich hoffe, dass wir im nahegelegenen See baden können. Am Sonntag fahren wir zurück nach Hause. |{{Inline audio|}} |We will still be at home on Friday because we are going to a classical music concert. On Saturday we are heading north and will sleep in Görlitz. We would like to explore this city because we only know the Polish part of it. I hope it will be possible to swim in the nearby lake. We are returning home on Sunday. | |- |Und was werden Sie tun? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what will you do? |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben C – Words with the letter C === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Cent | {{Inline audio|De-Cent.ogg}} | cent | [ts] – before "e" |- | circa | {{Inline audio|De-circa.ogg}} | approximately / about | [ts] – before "i" |- | Celsius | {{Inline audio|De-Celsius.ogg}} | Celsius | [ts] – before "e" |- | Cyber | {{Inline audio|}} | cyber | [ts] – before "y" |- | City | {{Inline audio|De-City.ogg}} | city | [ts] – before "i", often from English |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | [k] – loanword from French |- | Computer | {{Inline audio|De-Computer.ogg}} | computer | [k] – loanword from English |- | Clown | {{Inline audio|De-Clown.ogg}} | clown | [k] – loanword from English |- | Cola | {{Inline audio|De-Cola.ogg}} | cola | [k] – loanword, open syllable |- | Club | {{Inline audio|De-Club.ogg}} | club | [k] – loanword, final "c" pronounced hard |} === Was wir am Wochenende gemacht haben – What we did on the weekend === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo, wie ging es dir? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hi, how were you? | |- |Ziemlich gut. Letztendlich haben wir das Konzert abgesagt und sind am Freitag hingegangen. Wir haben die Katzennäpfe gefüllt und sind zum Konzert nach Görlitz gefahren. Schwimmen konnten wir zwar nicht, aber die Stadt war unglaublich. |{{Inline audio|}} |Pretty good. In the end, we gave up on the concert and went on Friday. We filled the cats' bowls and went to the concert in Görlitz. We couldn't swim, but the city was amazing. |- |Und was hast du gemacht? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what were you doing? | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben D – Words with the letter D === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Dach | {{Inline audio|De-Dach.ogg}} | roof | [d] – at the beginning, voiced |- | Dame | {{Inline audio|De-Dame.ogg}} | lady | [d] – initial position, voiced |- | denken | {{Inline audio|De-denken.ogg}} | to think | [d] – inside the word, voiced |- | Bruder | {{Inline audio|De-Bruder.ogg}} | brother | [d] – medial, voiced |- | Kinder | {{Inline audio|De-Kinder.ogg}} | children | [d] – medial, voiced |- | und | {{Inline audio|De-und.ogg}} | and | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Hund | {{Inline audio|De-Hund.ogg}} | dog | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | country / land | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Abend | {{Inline audio|De-Abend.ogg}} | evening | [t] – final "d" pronounced [t] |- | Bild | {{Inline audio|De-Bild.ogg}} | picture | [t] – final position, devoiced |} === Früchte – Fruits === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Picture ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Notes |- | [[File:Idared pomme.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Apfel | {{Inline audio|De-Apfel.ogg}} | apple | |- | [[File:Pear DS.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Birne | {{Inline audio|De-Birne.ogg}} | pear | |- | [[File:Cherry Stella444.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Kirsche | {{Inline audio|De-Kirsche.ogg}} | cherry | |- |[[File:Sloes, Swindon and Cricklade Railway - geograph.org.uk - 549616.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Schlehe | |blackthorn/sloe |''Prunus spinosa'' is a thorny shrub with small, round, dark blue and very bitter fruits. It grows wild. In Czech language it is called "trnka". |- | [[File:C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Zwetschge | {{Inline audio|De-Zwetschge.ogg}} | plum/European plum |Scientifically ''Prunus domestica'' subsp. ''domestica.'' In Czech "švestka". |- | [[File:Prunes Rouge et Blanche Provence Cl J Weber (23379539230).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pflaume | {{Inline audio|De-Pflaume.ogg}} | plum | |- | | Mirabelle | {{Inline audio|De-Mirabelle.ogg}} | mirabelle | |- | [[File:Grapevine green.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Traube | {{Inline audio|De-Traube.ogg}} | grape |Also ''Weintraube''. |- | [[File:Gâteau Génoise Chocolat (31315341).jpeg|frameless|200x200px]] | Erdbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Erdbeere.ogg}} | strawberry | |- | [[File:3. Strobery.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Himbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Himbeere.ogg}} | raspberry | |- | [[File:Blackberries by feiern1.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Brombeere | {{Inline audio|De-Brombeere.ogg}} | blackberry |- | [[File:Blueberries (52187526180).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Heidelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Heidelbeere.ogg}} | blueberry | |- | [[File:Currants in isolation (15296707472).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Johannisbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Johannisbeere.ogg}} | currant |- | [[File:Gooseberries.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] | Stachelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Stachelbeere.ogg}} | gooseberry | |- | [[File:Cucumis melo var. reticulatus (photo by Scott Bauer).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Melone | {{Inline audio|De-Melone.ogg}} | melon |Also ''Zuckermelone''. |- | [[File:Wassermelone (14439653646).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Wassermelone | {{Inline audio|De-Wassermelone.ogg}} | watermelon | |- | [[File:Peach close-up2.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pfirsich | {{Inline audio|De-Pfirsich.ogg}} | peach | |- | [[File:Apricots 2 - Farmer's Market at the Ferry Building - San Francisco, CA - DSC03603.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] | Aprikose | {{Inline audio|De-Aprikose.ogg}} | apricot | |- | [[File:Nectarine.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Nektarine | {{Inline audio|De-Nektarine.ogg}} | nectarine | |- | [[File:16-09-17-WikiLovesCocktails-Zutaten-Img0158.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Orange | {{Inline audio|De-Orange.ogg}} | orange | |- | [[File:Madarines white bg.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Mandarine | {{Inline audio|De-Mandarine.ogg}} | mandarin / tangerine | |- | [[File:Lemon.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Zitrone | {{Inline audio|De-Zitrone.ogg}} | lemon |- |[[File:日光東観荘 (25622026526).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Grapefruit |{{Inline audio|De-Grapefruit.ogg}} |grapefruit | |- |[[File:Israel, pomelo on a tree.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] |Pampelmuse |{{Inline audio|De-Pampelmuse.ogg}} |pomelo | |- | [[File:Banana.arp.750pix.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Banane | {{Inline audio|De-Banane.ogg}} | banana | |- | [[File:Kiwi (Actinidia chinensis) 1 Luc Viatour.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Kiwi | {{Inline audio|De-Kiwi.ogg}} | kiwi | |- | [[File:Ananas 2024 D.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Ananas | {{Inline audio|De-Ananas.ogg}} | pineapple | |- |[[File:Lychee fruits and seed.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Litschi |{{Inline audio|De-Litschi.ogg}} |lychee | |- |[[File:Cherimoya fruit hg.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Cherimoya |{{Inline audio|De-Cherimoya.ogg}} |cherimoya | |- |[[File:Feigen incir fig.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Feige |{{Inline audio|De-Feige.ogg}} |fig | |- |[[File:Bruknės .jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Preiselbeere |{{Inline audio|De-Preiselbeere2.ogg}} |mountain cranberry | |- |[[File:Elderberries - geograph.org.uk - 943642.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Holunder | |elderberry | |- |[[File:Pitaya cross section ed2.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Drachenfrucht |{{Inline audio|De-Drachenfrucht.ogg}} |pitaya |Also ''Pitaya''. |- |[[File:Figues de barbarie Tunisie.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] |Kaktusfeigen |{{Inline audio|De-Kaktusfeigen2.ogg}} |prickly pear | |- |[[File:Dattes deglet from Biskra.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Datteln |{{Inline audio|De-Datteln.ogg}} |dates | |- |[[File:Rowanberries in late August 2004 in Helsinki.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Drosselbeere | |rowanberry | |} === Wörter mit dem Buchstaben E – Words with the letter E === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | lesen | {{Inline audio|De-lesen.ogg}} | to read | [eː] – long vowel in open syllable |- | sehen | {{Inline audio|De-sehen.ogg}} | to see | [eː] – long vowel before "h" |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher | [eː] – stressed long vowel |- | Bett | {{Inline audio|De-Bett.ogg}} | bed | [ɛ] – short vowel, closed syllable with double consonant |- | Ende | {{Inline audio|De-Ende.ogg}} | end | [ɛ] – short vowel in stressed syllable |- | essen | {{Inline audio|De-essen.ogg}} | to eat | [ɛ] – short vowel, double consonant indicates shortness |- | bitte | {{Inline audio|De-bitte.ogg}} | please | [ə] – final unstressed "e" pronounced schwa |- | alle | {{Inline audio|De-alle.ogg}} | all | [ə] – final "e" as schwa |- | Name | {{Inline audio|De-Name.ogg}} | name | [ə] – final "e" reduced to schwa |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | final "é" (from French) often not pronounced, silent |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Grüß Gott. | |Greetings. | |- |Hey, Peter. | |Hi, Peter. | |- |Wie war dein Wochenende? | |How was your weekend? | |- |Am Samstag war ich zu Hause, da ich die Dokumente meines Großvaters digitalisieren wollte, und ruhte mich nachmittags aus. Am Sonntag machte ich dann einen Ausflug. Zuerst besuchte ich die Steinspirale in Úvaly und dann den Steinkreis in Kutná Hora. Ursprünglich wollte ich das Wochenende bis heute verlängern, aber da es mir nicht gut ging, fuhr ich erst am Sonntag wieder nach Hause. | |On Saturday, I was at home, having decided to digitize my grandfather's documents, and I rested in the afternoon. Then on Sunday, I went on a trip. First, I visited the stone spiral in Úvaly, and then I went to see the stone circle in Kutná Hora. Initially, I wanted to extend the weekend until today, but since I wasn't feeling well, I returned home on Sunday. | |- |Und haben Sie in den Dokumenten Ihres Großvaters etwas Interessantes entdeckt? | |And did you discover anything interesting in your grandfather's documents? | |- |Ja, ich habe dort Diplome für die Absolvierung einzelner Studienfächer gefunden. Das heißt, man hatte in den 40er Jahren nicht nur ein Abschlusszeugnis für das Studium, sondern man erhielt für jedes absolvierte Fach ein Diplom. | |Yes, I found diplomas there for completing individual subjects at university. This means that in the 1940s, they didn't just have a final diploma for their university studies, but they received a diploma for each subject completed. | |- |Was hat Ihr Großvater studiert? | |What did your grandfather study? | |- |Das Fachgebiet hieß Versicherungsstatistik oder so ähnlich. Ich glaube aber, dass er ein klassischer Statistiker oder Mathematiker war, denn er verdiente seinen Lebensunterhalt später als Programmierer und führte Computer in die Lagerverwaltung von Unternehmen ein. | |The field was called statistics-insurance, or something like that. But I think he was a classic statistician or mathematician, because he then made a living as a programmer and introduced computers into companies' warehouse management. | |- |Und wie ging es dir? | |And how were you? | |- |Ich war das ganze Wochenende zu Hause, ich hatte Zahnschmerzen. | |I was home all weekend, I had a toothache. | |- |Es tut mir Leid. | |I'm sorry. | |} === Beim Autoservice – At the car service === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Guten Tag | |Good day | |- |Guten Tag, wie kann ich Ihnen helfen? | |Hello, how can I help you? | |- |Sie müssen sich mein Auto ansehen. | |I need you to look at my car. | |- |Was ist daran falsch? | |What's wrong with it? | |- |Beim Schalten höre ich manchmal ein furchtbares Geräusch, als würde es einfach gegen die Gänge gehen. Das passiert nur manchmal beim Rückwärtsfahren, aber auch beim Schalten auf der Autobahn bei höherer Geschwindigkeit. | |When I shift gears, I sometimes hear a terrible noise, like it's just going against the gears. It only happens sometimes when I'm in reverse, but also when I'm shifting gears on the highway at higher speeds. | |} === Personalpronomen – Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | ich | {{Inline audio|De-ich.ogg}} | I | 1st person singular |- | du | {{Inline audio|De-du.ogg}} | you | 2nd person singular (informal) |- | er | {{Inline audio|De-er.ogg}} | he | 3rd person singular masculine |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | she | 3rd person singular feminine |- | es | {{Inline audio|De-es.ogg}} | it | 3rd person singular neuter |- | wir | {{Inline audio|De-wir.ogg}} | we | 1st person plural |- | ihr | {{Inline audio|De-ihr.ogg}} | you (plural) | 2nd person plural informal |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | they | 3rd person plural |- | Sie | {{Inline audio|De-Sie.ogg}} | you (formal) | Singular & plural, polite form |} === Personalpronomen in Sätzen – Personal pronouns in sentences === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Wie heißt du? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Informal question |- | Ich heiße Anna. | {{Inline audio|}} | My name is Anna. | Answer, introduce yourself |- | Wie heißen Sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Formal question |- | Ich bin Herr Müller. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am Mr. Müller. | Formal introduction |- | Woher kommst du? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you from? | Informal question about origin |- | Ich komme aus Deutschland. | {{Inline audio|}} | I come from Germany. | Answer about origin |- | Was bist du von Beruf? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your profession? | Informal question about job |- | Ich bin Lehrer. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am a teacher. | Answer about profession |- | Was machen Sie beruflich? | {{Inline audio|}} | What do you do for a living? | More formal/professional |- | Ich arbeite als Ingenieur. | {{Inline audio|}} | I work as an engineer. | Formal/professional answer |- | Wer ist er? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is he? | Question about a male person |- | Er heißt Peter. | {{Inline audio|}} | His name is Peter. | Answer with masculine pronoun |- | Wer ist sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is she? | Question about a female person |- | Sie ist meine Freundin. | {{Inline audio|}} | She is my friend. | Feminine pronoun |- | Wer ist es? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is it? | Question about neuter/unknown subject |- | Es ist ein Kind. | {{Inline audio|}} | It is a child. | Neuter pronoun |- | Wer sind wir? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are we? | Question with "wir" (we) |- | Wir sind Studenten. | {{Inline audio|}} | We are students. | 1st person plural |- | Wo seid ihr? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you (plural)? | Question with "ihr" (you, plural informal) |- | Ihr seid meine Freunde. | {{Inline audio|}} | You are my friends. | 2nd person plural informal |- | Wer sind sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are they? | Question with "sie" (they) |- | Sie kommen aus Spanien. | {{Inline audio|}} | They come from Spain. | 3rd person plural |} === Länder – Countries === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Deutschland | {{Inline audio|De-Deutschland.ogg}} | Germany | |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | |- | Schweiz | {{Inline audio|De-Schweiz.ogg}} | Switzerland | |- | Tschechien | {{Inline audio|De-Tschechien.ogg}} | Czech Republic | |- | Slowakei | {{Inline audio|De-Slowakei.ogg}} | Slovakia | |- | Polen | {{Inline audio|De-Polen.ogg}} | Poland | |- | Ungarn | {{Inline audio|De-Ungarn.ogg}} | Hungary | |- | Frankreich | {{Inline audio|De-Frankreich.ogg}} | France | |- | Italien | {{Inline audio|De-Italien.ogg}} | Italy | |- | Spanien | {{Inline audio|De-Spanien.ogg}} | Spain | |- | Portugal | {{Inline audio|De-Portugal.ogg}} | Portugal | |- | Griechenland | {{Inline audio|De-Griechenland.ogg}} | Greece | |- | Dänemark | {{Inline audio|De-Dänemark.ogg}} | Denmark | |- | Schweden | {{Inline audio|De-Schweden.ogg}} | Sweden | |- | Norwegen | {{Inline audio|De-Norwegen.ogg}} | Norway | |- | Finnland | {{Inline audio|De-Finnland.ogg}} | Finland | |- | Russland | {{Inline audio|De-Russland.ogg}} | Russia | |- | China | {{Inline audio|De-China.ogg}} | China | |- | Australien | {{Inline audio|De-Australien.ogg}} | Australia | |- | Vereinigte Staaten | {{Inline audio|De-Vereinigte Staaten.ogg}} | United States | |} === Städte – Towns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | |- | Bratislava | {{Inline audio|De-Bratislava.ogg}} | Bratislava | |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | |- | Budapest | {{Inline audio|De-Budapest.ogg}} | Budapest | |- | Paris | {{Inline audio|De-Paris.ogg}} | Paris | |- | Rom | {{Inline audio|De-Rom.ogg}} | Rome | |- | Madrid | {{Inline audio|De-Madrid.ogg}} | Madrid | |- | Lissabon | {{Inline audio|De-Lissabon.ogg}} | Lisbon | |- | Athen | {{Inline audio|De-Athen.ogg}} | Athens | |- | Kopenhagen | {{Inline audio|De-Kopenhagen.ogg}} | Copenhagen | |- | Stockholm | {{Inline audio|De-Stockholm.ogg}} | Stockholm | |- | Oslo | {{Inline audio|De-Oslo.ogg}} | Oslo | |- | Helsinki | {{Inline audio|De-Helsinki.ogg}} | Helsinki | |- | Moskau | {{Inline audio|De-Moskau.ogg}} | Moscow | |- | Peking | {{Inline audio|De-Peking.ogg}} | Beijing | |- | Canberra | {{Inline audio|De-Canberra.ogg}} | Canberra | |- | Washington | {{Inline audio|De-Washington.ogg}} | Washington, D.C. | |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | Germany |- | Hamburg | {{Inline audio|De-Hamburg.ogg}} | Hamburg | Germany |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | Germany |- | Köln | {{Inline audio|De-Köln.ogg}} | Cologne | Germany |- | Frankfurt am Main | {{Inline audio|De-Frankfurt am Main.ogg}} | Frankfurt am Main | Germany |- | Stuttgart | {{Inline audio|De-Stuttgart.ogg}} | Stuttgart | Germany |- | Düsseldorf | {{Inline audio|De-Düsseldorf.ogg}} | Düsseldorf | Germany |- | Leipzig | {{Inline audio|De-Leipzig.ogg}} | Leipzig | Germany |- | Dortmund | {{Inline audio|De-Dortmund.ogg}} | Dortmund | Germany |- | Essen | {{Inline audio|De-Essen.ogg}} | Essen | Germany |- | Bremen | {{Inline audio|De-Bremen.ogg}} | Bremen | Germany |- | Dresden | {{Inline audio|De-Dresden.oga}} | Dresden | Germany |- | Hannover | {{Inline audio|De-Hannover.ogg}} | Hanover | Germany |- | Nürnberg | {{Inline audio|De-Nürnberg.ogg}} | Nuremberg | Germany |- | Duisburg | {{Inline audio|De-Duisburg.ogg}} | Duisburg | Germany |- | Bochum | {{Inline audio|De-Bochum.ogg}} | Bochum | Germany |- | Wuppertal | {{Inline audio|De-Wuppertal.ogg}} | Wuppertal | Germany |- | Bielefeld | {{Inline audio|De-Bielefeld.ogg}} | Bielefeld | Germany |- | Bonn | {{Inline audio|De-Bonn.ogg}} | Bonn | Germany |- | Münster | {{Inline audio|De-Münster.ogg}} | Münster | Germany |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | Austria |- | Graz | {{Inline audio|De-Graz.ogg}} | Graz | Austria |- | Linz | {{Inline audio|De-Linz.ogg}} | Linz | Austria |- | Salzburg | {{Inline audio|De-Salzburg.ogg}} | Salzburg | Austria |- | Innsbruck | {{Inline audio|De-Innsbruck.ogg}} | Innsbruck | Austria |- | Klagenfurt | {{Inline audio|De-Klagenfurt.ogg}} | Klagenfurt | Austria |- | Villach | {{Inline audio|De-Villach.ogg}} | Villach | Austria |- | Wels | {{Inline audio|De-Wels.ogg}} | Wels | Austria |- | Sankt Pölten | {{Inline audio|De-at St Pölten.ogg}} | St. Pölten | Austria |- | Dornbirn | {{Inline audio|De-Dornbirn.ogg}} | Dornbirn | Austria |- | Zürich | {{Inline audio|De-Zürich.ogg}} | Zurich | Switzerland |- | Genf | {{Inline audio|De-Genf.ogg}} | Geneva | Switzerland |- | Basel | {{Inline audio|De-Basel.ogg}} | Basel | Switzerland |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | Switzerland |- | Lausanne | {{Inline audio|De-Lausanne.ogg}} | Lausanne | Switzerland |- | Winterthur | {{Inline audio|De-Winterthur.ogg}} | Winterthur | Switzerland |- | Luzern | {{Inline audio|De-Luzern.ogg}} | Lucerne | Switzerland |- | St. Gallen | {{Inline audio|}} | St. Gallen | Switzerland |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | Czech Republic – Praha |- | Brünn | {{Inline audio|De-Brünn.ogg}} | Brno | Czech Republic – Brno |- | Pilsen | {{Inline audio|De-Pilsen.ogg}} | Plzeň | Czech Republic – Plzeň |- | Budweis | {{Inline audio|De-Budweis.ogg}} | České Budějovice | Czech Republic – České Budějovice |- | Olmütz | {{Inline audio|De-Olmütz.ogg}} | Olomouc | Czech Republic – Olomouc |- | Reichenberg | {{Inline audio|}} | Liberec | Czech Republic – Liberec |- | Iglau | {{Inline audio|De-Iglau.ogg}} | Jihlava | Czech Republic – Jihlava |- | Eger | {{Inline audio|De-Eger.ogg}} | Cheb | Czech Republic – Cheb |- | Karlsbad | {{Inline audio|De-Karlsbad.ogg}} | Karlovy Vary | Czech Republic – Karlovy Vary |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | Poland – Warszawa |- | Krakau | {{Inline audio|De-Krakau.ogg}} | Kraków | Poland – Kraków |- | Danzig | {{Inline audio|De-Danzig.ogg}} | Gdańsk | Poland – Gdańsk |- | Breslau | {{Inline audio|De-Breslau.ogg}} | Wrocław | Poland – Wrocław |- | Stettin | {{Inline audio|De-Stettin.ogg}} | Szczecin | Poland – Szczecin |- | Posen | {{Inline audio|De-Posen.ogg}} | Poznań | Poland – Poznań |- | Kattowitz | {{Inline audio|De-Kattowitz.ogg}} | Katowice | Poland – Katowice |- | Allenstein | {{Inline audio|De-Allenstein.ogg}} | Olsztyn | Poland – Olsztyn |- | Oppeln | {{Inline audio|De-Oppeln.ogg}} | Opole | Poland – Opole |} === Berufe – Professions === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher (male) | |- | Lehrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrerin.ogg}} | teacher (female) | |- | Arzt | {{Inline audio|De-Arzt.ogg}} | doctor (male) | |- | Ärztin | {{Inline audio|De-Ärztin.ogg}} | doctor (female) | |- | Ingenieur | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieur.ogg}} | engineer (male) | |- | Ingenieurin | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieurin.ogg}} | engineer (female) | |- | Verkäufer | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäufer.ogg}} | salesman | |- | Verkäuferin | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäuferin.ogg}} | saleswoman | |- | Kellner | {{Inline audio|De-Kellner.ogg}} | waiter | |- | Kellnerin | {{Inline audio|De-Kellnerin.ogg}} | waitress | |- | Polizist | {{Inline audio|De-Polizist.ogg}} | policeman | |- | Polizistin | {{Inline audio|De-Polizistin.ogg}} | policewoman | |- | Journalist | {{Inline audio|De-Journalist.ogg}} | journalist (male) | |- | Journalistin | {{Inline audio|De-Journalistin.ogg}} | journalist (female) | |- | Bauer | {{Inline audio|De-Bauer.ogg}} | farmer (male) | |- | Bäuerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäuerin.ogg}} | farmer (female) | |- | Student | {{Inline audio|De-Student.ogg}} | student (male) | |- | Studentin | {{Inline audio|De-Studentin.ogg}} | student (female) | |- | Künstler | {{Inline audio|De-Künstler.ogg}} | artist (male) | |- | Künstlerin | {{Inline audio|De-Künstlerin.ogg}} | artist (female) | |- | Programmierer | {{Inline audio|De-Programmierer.ogg}} | programmer (male) | |- | Programmiererin | {{Inline audio|De-Programmiererin.ogg}} | programmer (female) | |- | Manager | {{Inline audio|De-Manager.ogg}} | manager (male) | |- | Managerin | {{Inline audio|De-Managerin.ogg}} | manager (female) | |- | Fahrer | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrer.ogg}} | driver (male) | |- | Fahrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrerin.ogg}} | driver (female) | |- | Musiker | {{Inline audio|De-Musiker.ogg}} | musician (male) | |- | Musikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Musikerin.ogg}} | musician (female) | |- | Schauspieler | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspieler.ogg}} | actor | |- | Schauspielerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspielerin.ogg}} | actress | |- | Koch | {{Inline audio|De-Koch.ogg}} | cook (male) | |- | Köchin | {{Inline audio|De-Köchin.ogg}} | cook (female) | |- | Architekt | {{Inline audio|De-Architekt.ogg}} | architect (male) | |- | Architektin | {{Inline audio|De-Architektin.ogg}} | architect (female) | |- | Bibliothekar | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekar.ogg}} | librarian (male) | |- | Bibliothekarin | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekarin.ogg}} | librarian (female) | |- | Pilot | {{Inline audio|De-Pilot.ogg}} | pilot (male) | |- | Pilotin | {{Inline audio|De-Pilotin.ogg}} | pilot (female) | |- | Krankenpfleger | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenpfleger.ogg}} | nurse (male) | |- | Krankenschwester | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenschwester.ogg}} | nurse (female) | |- | Schneider | {{Inline audio|De-Schneider.ogg}} | tailor (male) | |- | Schneiderin | {{Inline audio|De-Schneiderin.ogg}} | tailor (female) | |- | Maler | {{Inline audio|De-Maler.ogg}} | painter (male) | |- | Malerin | {{Inline audio|De-Malerin.ogg}} | painter (female) | |- | Mechaniker | {{Inline audio|De-Mechaniker.ogg}} | mechanic (male) | |- | Mechanikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Mechanikerin.ogg}} | mechanic (female) | |- | Elektriker | {{Inline audio|De-Elektriker.ogg}} | electrician (male) | |- | Elektrikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Elektrikerin.ogg}} | electrician (female) | |- | Bäcker | {{Inline audio|De-Bäcker.ogg}} | baker (male) | |- | Bäckerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäckerin.ogg}} | baker (female) | |- | Metzger | {{Inline audio|De-Metzger.ogg}} | butcher (male) | |- | Metzgerin | {{Inline audio|}} | butcher (female) | |- | Forscher | {{Inline audio|De-Forscher.ogg}} | researcher (male) | |- | Forscherin | {{Inline audio|De-Forscherin.ogg}} | researcher (female) | |- | Fotograf | {{Inline audio|De-Fotograf.ogg}} | photographer (male) | |- | Fotografin | {{Inline audio|De-Fotografin.ogg}} | photographer (female) | |- | Designer | {{Inline audio|De-Designer.ogg}} | designer (male) | |- | Designerin | {{Inline audio|De-Designerin.ogg}} | designer (female) | |- | Schriftsteller | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftsteller.ogg}} | writer (male) | |- | Schriftstellerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftstellerin.ogg}} | writer (female) | |} === Fragen und Antworten – Questions and answers === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | | |What is your name? | |- | | |My name is Hans. | |- | | |Where do you come from? | |- | | |I come from Spain. | |- | | |Who is he? | |- | | |That is my brother. | |} == Texts == [[Category:Audio-visual German language materials|Pronunciation]] [[Category:Pronunciation]] alzwk3pph57padu8m7we70llo27p5jt 2816810 2816809 2026-06-25T10:21:44Z Juandev 2651 /* Früchte – Fruits */ +colors 2816810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{non-formal education}}{{languages}}{{0% done}}{{German}} == Words/Phrases == === {{Inline audio|De-Grüße.ogg|Grüße}} – Greetings === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronanciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo |{{Inline audio|De-Hallo.ogg}} |Hello | |- |Hi |{{Inline audio|De-hi.ogg}} |Hi |informal |- |Hey |{{Inline audio|De-hey.ogg}} |Hey |Informal, mostly among friends |- |Guten Tag |{{Inline audio|De-guten Tag2.ogg}} |Good day |Polite, formal |- |Tag |{{Inline audio|De-Tag2.ogg}} |day |colloquially |- |Guten Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-guten Morgen2.ogg}} |Good morning |Until 11 a.m. |- |Morgen |{{Inline audio|De-Morgen2.ogg}} |Morning |colloquially |- |Guten Mittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good noon |Rarely used, mostly literal |- |Guten Nachmittag |{{Inline audio|}} |Good afternoon |Rarely used |- |Guten Abend |{{Inline audio|De-guten Abend.ogg}} |Good evening |From 6 p.m. |- |N‘Abend! | |evening |colloquially, Northern Germany |- |Servus |{{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}} |Hello / Hi |Informal, used in southern Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland |- |Grüß dich |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Informal, friendly |- |Grüß Gott |{{Inline audio|De-grüß Gott.ogg}} |Greetings / God bless you |Southern Germany, Austria, Bavaria; formal or informal |- |Moin |{{Inline audio|De-moin.ogg}} |Hi / Hello |Northern Germany, any time of day |- |Na? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hey? / What’s up? |Informal, very casual |- |Wie geht’s? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht’s.ogg}} |How are you? |Informal |- |Wie geht es Ihnen? |{{Inline audio|De-wie geht es Ihnen.ogg}} |How are you? |Formal |- |Alles klar? |{{Inline audio|}} |All good? / Everything okay? |Informal |- |Was geht? |{{Inline audio|}} |What’s up? |Informal, youth slang |- |Was machst du? |{{Inline audio|}} |What are you doing? | |- |Lange nicht gesehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Long time no see! | |- |Schön dich zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Informal |- |Schön Sie zu sehen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Nice to see you! |Formal |- |Willkommen! |{{Inline audio|De-willkommen.ogg}} |Welcome! | |- |Herzlich willkommen! |{{Inline audio|}} |Warm welcome! |Formal, polite |- |Grüezi |{{Inline audio|}} |Hello |Switzerland |} === {{Inline audio|De-Abschiede.ogg|Abschiede}} – Farewells === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German !! Pronunciation !! English !! Use/Notes |- | Auf Wiedersehen || {{Inline audio|De-auf Wiedersehen.oga}}||Goodbye || Formal |- | Auf Wiederschauen || {{Inline audio|}}||Goodbye || Formal, mostly in Bavaria and Austria. |- | Tschüss || {{Inline audio|De-tschüs2.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, very common |- | Tschö || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal, mainly in Cologne and Rhineland. |- |Tschüssi! || {{Inline audio|}} || Byee || inoformal, eastern Germany |- | Ciao || {{Inline audio|De-ciao.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, popular among youth. |- | Bye || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye || Informal |- | Servus || {{Inline audio|De-servus.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southern Germany, Austria |- | Ade || {{Inline audio|De-Ade.ogg}}||Bye || Informal, used in Southwestern Germany and Switzerland. |- | Grüezi || {{Inline audio|}}||Bye/Hello || Informal, Swiss German |- | Mach’s gut || {{Inline audio|De-mach's gut.ogg}}||Take care || Informal |- | Machen Sie’s gut || {{Inline audio|}}||Take care || Formal |- | Bis bald || {{Inline audio|De-bis bald.ogg}}||See you soon || |- | Bis später || {{Inline audio|}}||See you later || When meeting later the same day. |- | Bis gleich || {{Inline audio|}}||See you in a bit || When meeting again very soon. |- | Bis dann || {{Inline audio|De-bis dann.ogg}}||See you then || Casual, used when a meeting is arranged. |- | Bis morgen || {{Inline audio|}}||See you tomorrow || |- | Wir sehen uns || {{Inline audio|}} ||See you || Casual and friendly. |- | Gute Nacht || {{Inline audio|De-Gute Nacht.ogg}}||Good night || |- | Schönen Tag noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice day || |- | Schönen Abend noch || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice evening || |- | Schönes Wochenende || {{Inline audio|}}||Have a nice weekend || |- | Frohe Feiertage || {{Inline audio|}}||Happy holidays || |} === Ich spreche kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es. – I don't speak German, but I'm learning it. === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Sprechen Sie bitte Englisch? | {{Inline audio|}} | Do you speak English, please? | |- | Ich spreche kein Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|De-Ich spreche kein Deutsch..ogg}} | I don't speak German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am learning German. | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch, aber ich weiß noch nicht viel. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German, but I don't know much yet. | |- | Könnten Sie bitte langsamer sprechen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Could you speak more slowly, please? | |- | Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you repeat that again? | |- | Können Sie das buchstabieren? | {{Inline audio|}} | Can you spell it? | |- | Ich lerne Deutsch. Ich würde Ihr Feedback schätzen. | {{Inline audio|}} | I'm learning German. I'd appreciate your feedback. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Ich heiße ....ogg|Ich heiße}} – My name is === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Jan Lochman. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is Jan Lochman. | |- |Können Sie das buchstabieren? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you spell it? | |- |Julius-Anton-Nordpol-Leerzeichen-Ludwig-Otto-Charlotte-Martha-Anton-Nordpol |{{Inline audio|}} |j-a-n-space-l-o-c-h-m-a-n | |- |Können Sie das bitte noch einmal wiederholen? |{{Inline audio|}} |Can you repeat that again? | |- |Wie heißt du? |{{Inline audio|De-Wie heißt du?.ogg}} |What is your name? | |- |Johanna |{{Inline audio|De-Johanna.ogg}} |Jane | |- |Georg |{{Inline audio|De-Georg2.ogg}} |George | |- |Maria |{{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} |Mary | |- |Johann |{{Inline audio|De-Johann.ogg}} |John | |- |Eva |{{Inline audio|De-Eva.ogg}} |Eve | |- |Peter |{{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} |Peter | |- |Hanna |{{Inline audio|}} |Hanna | |- |Anna |{{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} |Anne | |- |Paul |{{Inline audio|De-Paul.ogg}} |Paul | |} === Die häufigsten deutschen Namen – Most common German names === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | Michael | {{Inline audio|De-Michael.ogg}} | Michael | |- | Thomas | {{Inline audio|De-Thomas.ogg}} | Thomas | |- | Andreas | {{Inline audio|De-Andreas.ogg}} | Andrew | |- | Stefan | {{Inline audio|De-Stefan.ogg}} | Stephen | |- | Peter | {{Inline audio|De-Peter.ogg}} | Peter | |- | Wolfgang | {{Inline audio|De-Wolfgang.ogg}} | Wolfgang | |- | Hans | {{Inline audio|De-Hans.ogg}} | John | |- | Klaus | {{Inline audio|De-Klaus.ogg}} | Claus / Nicholas | |- | Karl | {{Inline audio|De-Karl.ogg}} | Charles | |- | Heinz | {{Inline audio|De-Heinz.ogg}} | Henry | |- | Johannes | {{Inline audio|De-Johannes.ogg}} | John | |- | Martin | {{Inline audio|De-Martin.ogg}} | Martin | |- | Matthias | {{Inline audio|De-Matthias.ogg}} | Matthew | |- | Christian | {{Inline audio|De-Christian.ogg}} | Christian | |- | Josef | {{Inline audio|De-Josef.ogg}} | Joseph | |- | Franz | {{Inline audio|De-Franz.ogg}} | Francis | |- | Dieter | {{Inline audio|De-Dieter.ogg}} | Dieter / Derek | |- | Jürgen | {{Inline audio|De-Jürgen.ogg}} | George | |- | Uwe | {{Inline audio|De-Uwe.ogg}} | Hugh | |- | Günter | {{Inline audio|De-Günter.ogg}} | Gunther | |- | Anna | {{Inline audio|De-Anna.ogg}} | Anna / Anne | |- | Maria | {{Inline audio|De-Maria.ogg}} | Mary | |- | Emma | {{Inline audio|De-Emma.ogg}} | Emma | |- | Elisabeth | {{Inline audio|De-Elisabeth.ogg}} | Elizabeth | |- | Katharina | {{Inline audio|De-Katharina2.ogg}} | Catherine / Katherine | |- | Barbara | {{Inline audio|De-Barbara.ogg}} | Barbara | |- | Sabine | {{Inline audio|De-Sabine.ogg}} | Sabina | |- | Claudia | {{Inline audio|De-Claudia.ogg}} | Claudia | |- | Monika | {{Inline audio|De-Monika.ogg}} | Monica | |- | Julia | {{Inline audio|De-Julia.ogg}} | Julia | |- | Christina | {{Inline audio|De-Christina.ogg}} | Christina / Christine | |- | Angelika | {{Inline audio|De-Angelika.ogg}} | Angelica | |- | Susanne | {{Inline audio|De-Susanne.ogg}} | Susan / Suzanne | |- | Ursula | {{Inline audio|De-Ursula.ogg}} | Ursula | |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Mir geht es gut. Übers Wochenende war ich bei meiner Großmutter in Westböhmen. Am Samstag besuchten wir das bayerische Städtchen Cham, wo wir uns das Zentrum ansahen und ein paar Fotos machten. Am Sonntag arbeiteten wir im Garten, pflückten Birnen und sammelten heruntergefallene Äpfel und Nüsse. Am Nachmittag besuchten wir das Jagdschloss Diana bei Rozvadov. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am fine. I was at my grandmother's in West Bohemia over the weekend. On Saturday, we visited the Bavarian town of Cham, where we looked around the center and took a few photos. On Sunday, we worked in the garden, picking pears and collecting fallen apples and nuts. In the afternoon, we visited the Diana hunting lodge near Rozvadov. | |} === Sich vorstellen – Introducing yourself === {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Mein Name ist Hans. |{{Inline audio|}} |My name is John. | |- |Ich bin ein Tscheche aus Prag. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Czech from Prague. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am Spanish. | |- |Ich komme aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am from Granada. | |- |Ich bin ein Spanier aus Granada. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Spanish from Granda. | |- |Ich bin ein Pole aus Breslau. |{{Inline audio|}} |I am a Pole from Wrocław. | |- |Ich spreche Englisch, Spanisch und ein wenig Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I speak English, Spanish and a little German. | |- |Ich spreche noch kein Deutsch, aber ich lerne es? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't speak German yet, but I'm learning? | |- |Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|De-Sprechen Sie Englisch.oga}} |Do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht. Sprechen Sie Englisch? |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, do you speak English? | |- |Ich verstehe Sie nicht, ich spreche kein Deutsch. |{{Inline audio|}} |I don't understand you, I don't speak German. | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Alphabet.ogg|Alphabet}} – Alphabet === {{Inline audio|German alphabet-2.ogg|A – B – C – D – E – F – G – H – I – J – K – L – M – N – O – P – Q – R – S – T – U – V – W – X – Y – Z}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-a.ogg|A}} | {{Inline audio|De-B.ogg|B}} | {{Inline audio|De-C.ogg|C}} | {{Inline audio|De-D.ogg|D}} | {{Inline audio|De-e.ogg|E}} | {{Inline audio|De-f.ogg|F}} | {{Inline audio|De-g.ogg|G}} | {{Inline audio|De-h.ogg|H}} | {{Inline audio|De-i.ogg|I}} | {{Inline audio|De-j.ogg|J}} | {{Inline audio|De-k.ogg|K}} | {{Inline audio|De-l.ogg|L}} | {{Inline audio|De-m.ogg|M}} |- | {{Inline audio|De-n.ogg|N}} | {{Inline audio|De-O.ogg|O}} | {{Inline audio|De-P.ogg|P}} | {{Inline audio|De-Q.ogg|Q}} | {{Inline audio|De-r.ogg|R}} | {{Inline audio|De-S.ogg|S}} | {{Inline audio|De-t.ogg|T}} | {{Inline audio|De-u.ogg|U}} | {{Inline audio|De-v.ogg|V}} | {{Inline audio|De-w.ogg|W}} | {{Inline audio|De-x.ogg|X}} | {{Inline audio|De-y.ogg|Y}} | {{Inline audio|De-Z.ogg|Z}} |} {{Inline audio|German extra letters.ogg|Ä – Ö – Ü – ß}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | {{Inline audio|De-Ä.ogg|Ä}} | {{Inline audio|De-ö.ogg|Ö}} | {{Inline audio|De-Ü.ogg|Ü}} | ß |} ==== Wörter mit dem Buchstaben A – Words with the letter A ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Mann | {{Inline audio|De-Mann.ogg}} | man | short [a] – closed syllable ending in consonant |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | land / country | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Hand | {{Inline audio|De-Hand.ogg}} | hand | short [a] – closed syllable |- | Wasser | {{Inline audio|De-Wasser.ogg}} | water | short [a] – doubled consonant indicates short vowel |- | fangen | {{Inline audio|De-fangen.ogg}} | to catch | short [a] – followed by consonant cluster |- | Vater | {{Inline audio|De-Vater.ogg}} | father | long [aː] – open syllable with single consonant after |- | Saal | {{Inline audio|De-Saal.ogg}} | hall | long [aː] – "aa" indicates vowel length |- | Zahn | {{Inline audio|De-Zahn.ogg}} | tooth | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |- | haben | {{Inline audio|De-haben.ogg}} | to have | long [aː] – open syllable |- | fahren | {{Inline audio|De-fahren.ogg}} | to drive / to go | long [aː] – "ah" indicates vowel length |} ==== Wörter mit den Buchstaben ä, ö, ü und ß – Words with the letters ä, ö, ü and ß ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Bär | {{Inline audio|De-Bär.ogg}} | bear | long [ɛː] – "ä" can indicate length (äh) |- | Männer | {{Inline audio|De-Männer.ogg}} | men | short [ɛ] – "ä" often pronounced like short [ɛ] |- | spät | {{Inline audio|De-spät.ogg}} | late | long [ɛː] – "ä" with "t" at the end, vowel length marked by "h" or final consonant |- | zählen | {{Inline audio|De-zählen.ogg}} | to count | long [ɛː] – "äh" signals length |- | hätte | {{Inline audio|De-hätte.ogg}} | would have | short [ɛ] – subjunctive form with short vowel |- | Öl | {{Inline audio|De-Öl.ogg}} | oil | long [øː] – stressed and in open syllable |- | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | twelve | short [œ] – followed by consonant cluster |- | schön | {{Inline audio|De-schön.ogg}} | beautiful | long [øː] – "ö" often lengthened before "n" |- | können | {{Inline audio|De-können.ogg}} | can (plural/infinitive) | short [œ] – doubled consonant shortens vowel |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | long [øː] – stressed vowel in open syllable |- | Tür | {{Inline audio|De-Tür.ogg}} | door | long [yː] – "ü" in stressed syllable, lengthened |- | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | five | short [ʏ] – closed syllable with consonant cluster |- | früh | {{Inline audio|De-früh.ogg}} | early | long [yː] – "üh" indicates length |- | Schüler | {{Inline audio|De-Schüler.ogg}} | pupil / student | long [yː] – vowel length marked by "h" |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | short [ʏ] – typical short "ü" |- | Straße | {{Inline audio|De-Straße.ogg}} | street | "ß" = [s] – sharp voiceless "s", vowel before is long |- | groß | {{Inline audio|De-groß.ogg}} | big / tall | "ß" = [s] – lengthens preceding vowel |- | heiß | {{Inline audio|De-heiß.ogg}} | hot | "ß" = [s] – marks preceding diphthong length |- | Fuß | {{Inline audio|De-Fuß.ogg}} | foot | "ß" = [s] – preceding vowel long [uː] |- | weiß | {{Inline audio|De-weiß.ogg}} | white | "ß" = [s] – diphthong [aɪ̯] + [s] |} ==== {{Inline audio|De-Buchstabiertafel.ogg|Buchstabiertafel}} – Spelling alphabet ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Phoneme ! Placeholder word ! Pronunciation ! Use/Notes |- | A | Anton | {{Inline audio|De-Anton.ogg}} | |- | Ä | Ärger | {{Inline audio|De-Ärger.ogg}} | |- | B | Berta | | |- | C | Cäsar | {{Inline audio|De-Caesar.ogg}} | |- | Ch | Charlotte | {{Inline audio|De-Charlotte.ogg}} | |- | D | Dora | | |- | E | Emil | {{Inline audio|De-Emil.ogg}} | |- | F | Friedrich | {{Inline audio|De-Friedrich.ogg}} | |- | G | Gustav | {{Inline audio|De-Gustav.ogg}} | |- | H | Heinrich | {{Inline audio|De-Heinrich.ogg}} | |- | I | Ida | {{Inline audio|De-Ida.ogg}} | |- | J | Julius | {{Inline audio|De-Julius.ogg}} | |- | K | Kaufmann | {{Inline audio|De-Kaufmann.ogg}} | |- | L | Ludwig | {{Inline audio|De-Ludwig.ogg}} | |- | M | Martha | {{Inline audio|De-Martha.ogg}} | |- | N | Nordpol | {{Inline audio|De-Nordpol.ogg}} | |- | O | Otto | {{Inline audio|De-Otto.ogg}} | |- | Ö | Ökonom | {{Inline audio|De-Ökonom.ogg}} | |- | P | Paula | {{Inline audio|De-Paula.ogg}} | |- | Q | Quelle | {{Inline audio|De-Quelle.ogg}} | |- | R | Richard | {{Inline audio|De-Richard.ogg}} | |- | S | Samuel | {{Inline audio|De-Samuel.ogg}} | |- | Sch | Schule | {{Inline audio|De-Schule.ogg}} | |- | ß | Eszett | {{Inline audio|De-Eszett.ogg}} | |- | T | Theodor | {{Inline audio|De-Theodor.ogg}} | |- | U | Ulrich | {{Inline audio|De-Ulrich.ogg}} | |- | Ü | Übermut | {{Inline audio|De-Übermut.ogg}} | |- | V | Viktor | {{Inline audio|De-Viktor.ogg}} | |- | W | Wilhelm | {{Inline audio|De-Wilhelm.ogg}} | |- | X | Xanthippe | {{Inline audio|De-Xanthippe.ogg}} | |- | Y | Ypsilon | {{Inline audio|De-Ypsilon.ogg}} | |- | Z | Zacharias | {{Inline audio|De-Zacharias.ogg}} | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your name in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Wie heißt du?'' |{{Inline audio|}} |''What is your name?'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Jan, aber du kannst mich Hans nennen. Heinrich–Anton–Nordpol–Samuel'' | |''My name is Jan, but you can call me Hans. H–A–N–S.'' | |- |''Mein Name ist Juan. Julius–Ulrich–Anton–Nordpol.'' | |''My name is Juan. J–U–A–N.'' | |- |... | | | |} '''''Collaborate:''' write your'' ''place of origin in the table below and spell it according to the pattern.'' {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronuncation !English !Use/Notes |- |''Woher kommst du?'' | |''Where do you come from?'' | |- |''Ich komme aus Vojníkov. Viktor–Otto–Julius–Nordpol–Ida–Kaufmann–Otto–Viktor.'' | |''I come from Vojníkov. V–O–J–N–I–K–O–V.'' | |- | | | | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Grundzahlen.ogg|Grundzahlen}} – Cardinal numbers === '''''Note:''' Numbers and years are pronounced the same way in German.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Německá čísla |- ! Number ! German ! Pronunciation ! Notes |- | 0 | null | {{Inline audio|De-null.ogg}} | |- | 1 | eins | {{Inline audio|De-eins.ogg}} | |- | 2 | zwei | {{Inline audio|De-zwei.ogg}} | |- | 3 | drei | {{Inline audio|De-drei.ogg}} | |- | 4 | vier | {{Inline audio|De-vier.ogg}} | |- | 5 | fünf | {{Inline audio|De-fünf.ogg}} | |- | 6 | sechs | {{Inline audio|De-sechs.ogg}} | |- | 7 | sieben | {{Inline audio|De-sieben.ogg}} | |- | 8 | acht | {{Inline audio|De-acht.ogg}} | |- | 9 | neun | {{Inline audio|De-neun.ogg}} | |- | 10 | zehn | {{Inline audio|De-zehn.ogg}} | |- | 11 | elf | {{Inline audio|De-elf.ogg}} | |- | 12 | zwölf | {{Inline audio|De-zwölf.ogg}} | |- | 13 | dreizehn | {{Inline audio|De-dreizehn.ogg}} | |- | 14 | vierzehn | {{Inline audio|De-vierzehn.ogg}} | |- | 15 | fünfzehn | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzehn.ogg}} | |- | 16 | sechzehn | {{Inline audio|De-sechzehn.ogg}} | |- | 17 | siebzehn | {{Inline audio|De-siebzehn.ogg}} | |- | 18 | achtzehn | {{Inline audio|De-achtzehn.ogg}} | |- | 19 | neunzehn | {{Inline audio|De-neunzehn.ogg}} | |- | 20 | zwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 21 | einundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-einundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 22 | zweiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-zweiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- | 23 | dreiundzwanzig | {{Inline audio|De-dreiundzwanzig.ogg}} | |- |24 |vierundzwanzig | | |- |25 |fünfundzwanzig | | |- |26 |sechsundzwanzig | | |- |27 |siebenundzwanzig | | |- |28 |achtundzwanzig | | |- |29 |neunundzwanzig | | |- | 30 | dreißig | {{Inline audio|De-dreißig.ogg}} | |- |31 |einunddreißig | | |- | 40 | vierzig | {{Inline audio|De-vierzig.ogg}} | |- | 50 | fünfzig | {{Inline audio|De-fünfzig.ogg}} | |- | 60 | sechzig | {{Inline audio|De-sechzig.ogg}} | |- | 70 | siebzig | {{Inline audio|De-siebzig.ogg}} | |- | 80 | achtzig | {{Inline audio|De-achtzig.ogg}} | |- | 90 | neunzig | {{Inline audio|De-neunzig.ogg}} | |- | 100 | hundert | {{Inline audio|De-hundert.ogg}} | |- | 101 | hunderteins | {{Inline audio|De-hunderteins.ogg}} | |- |102 |hundertzwei | | |- |103 |hundertdrei | | |- |104 |hundertvier | | |- |105 |hundertfünf | | |- |106 |hundertsechs | | |- | 111 | hundertelf | {{Inline audio|De-hundertelf.ogg}} | |- | 200 | zweihundert | {{Inline audio|De-zweihundert.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 | tausend | {{Inline audio|De-tausend.ogg}} | |- | 10 000 | zehntausend | {{Inline audio|De-zehntausend.ogg}} | |- | 100 000 | hunderttausend | {{Inline audio|De-hunderttausend.ogg}} | |- | 1 000 000 | Million | {{Inline audio|De-Million.ogg}} | |- | 1 234 567 | Million zweihundertvierunddreißigtausendfünfhundertsiebenundsechzig | | |- | 2 000 000 | zwei Millionen | | From here onwards, there are two words. One for a million and the other for the rest. |- | 1 000 000 000 | Milliarde | {{Inline audio|De-Milliarde.ogg}} | |- | 2 500 000 000 | zwei Milliarden fünfhundert Millionen | | |- |250 386 536 253 |zweihundertfünfzig Milliarden dreihundertsechsundachtzig Millionen fünfhundertsechsunddreißigtausend zweihundertdreiundfünfzig | | |- | 1 000 000 000 000 | Billion | {{Inline audio|De-Billion.ogg}} | |- |200 000 000 000 000 |zweihundert Billionen | | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben B – Words with the letter B === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Ball | {{Inline audio|De-Ball.ogg}} | ball | [b] – at the beginning of the word, voiced |- | bleiben | {{Inline audio|De-bleiben.ogg}} | to stay | [b] – in the middle of the word, voiced |- | ab | {{Inline audio|De-ab.ogg}} | off / from | [p] – at the end of the word, final devoicing |- | ob | {{Inline audio|De-ob.ogg}} | whether / if | [p] – final position, devoiced |- | schreiben | {{Inline audio|De-schreiben.ogg}} | to write | [b] – inside the word, voiced |} === Was wirst du dieses Wochenende machen? – What will you do this weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Am Freitag sind wir noch zu Hause, da wir ein klassisches Konzert besuchen. Am Samstag fahren wir Richtung Norden und übernachten in Görlitz. Wir möchten die Stadt erkunden, da wir bisher nur den polnischen Teil kennen. Ich hoffe, dass wir im nahegelegenen See baden können. Am Sonntag fahren wir zurück nach Hause. |{{Inline audio|}} |We will still be at home on Friday because we are going to a classical music concert. On Saturday we are heading north and will sleep in Görlitz. We would like to explore this city because we only know the Polish part of it. I hope it will be possible to swim in the nearby lake. We are returning home on Sunday. | |- |Und was werden Sie tun? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what will you do? |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben C – Words with the letter C === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Cent | {{Inline audio|De-Cent.ogg}} | cent | [ts] – before "e" |- | circa | {{Inline audio|De-circa.ogg}} | approximately / about | [ts] – before "i" |- | Celsius | {{Inline audio|De-Celsius.ogg}} | Celsius | [ts] – before "e" |- | Cyber | {{Inline audio|}} | cyber | [ts] – before "y" |- | City | {{Inline audio|De-City.ogg}} | city | [ts] – before "i", often from English |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | [k] – loanword from French |- | Computer | {{Inline audio|De-Computer.ogg}} | computer | [k] – loanword from English |- | Clown | {{Inline audio|De-Clown.ogg}} | clown | [k] – loanword from English |- | Cola | {{Inline audio|De-Cola.ogg}} | cola | [k] – loanword, open syllable |- | Club | {{Inline audio|De-Club.ogg}} | club | [k] – loanword, final "c" pronounced hard |} === Was wir am Wochenende gemacht haben – What we did on the weekend === {| class="wikitable" !German !Recording !English !Use/Notes |- |Hallo, wie ging es dir? |{{Inline audio|}} |Hi, how were you? | |- |Ziemlich gut. Letztendlich haben wir das Konzert abgesagt und sind am Freitag hingegangen. Wir haben die Katzennäpfe gefüllt und sind zum Konzert nach Görlitz gefahren. Schwimmen konnten wir zwar nicht, aber die Stadt war unglaublich. |{{Inline audio|}} |Pretty good. In the end, we gave up on the concert and went on Friday. We filled the cats' bowls and went to the concert in Görlitz. We couldn't swim, but the city was amazing. |- |Und was hast du gemacht? |{{Inline audio|}} |And what were you doing? | |} ===Wörter mit dem Buchstaben D – Words with the letter D === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Dach | {{Inline audio|De-Dach.ogg}} | roof | [d] – at the beginning, voiced |- | Dame | {{Inline audio|De-Dame.ogg}} | lady | [d] – initial position, voiced |- | denken | {{Inline audio|De-denken.ogg}} | to think | [d] – inside the word, voiced |- | Bruder | {{Inline audio|De-Bruder.ogg}} | brother | [d] – medial, voiced |- | Kinder | {{Inline audio|De-Kinder.ogg}} | children | [d] – medial, voiced |- | und | {{Inline audio|De-und.ogg}} | and | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Hund | {{Inline audio|De-Hund.ogg}} | dog | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Land | {{Inline audio|De-Land.ogg}} | country / land | [t] – final position, devoiced |- | Abend | {{Inline audio|De-Abend.ogg}} | evening | [t] – final "d" pronounced [t] |- | Bild | {{Inline audio|De-Bild.ogg}} | picture | [t] – final position, devoiced |} === {{Inline audio|De-Früchten.ogg|Früchten}} – Fruits === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Picture ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Notes |- | [[File:Idared pomme.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Apfel | {{Inline audio|De-Apfel.ogg}} | apple | |- | [[File:Pear DS.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Birne | {{Inline audio|De-Birne.ogg}} | pear | |- | [[File:Cherry Stella444.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Kirsche | {{Inline audio|De-Kirsche.ogg}} | cherry | |- |[[File:Sloes, Swindon and Cricklade Railway - geograph.org.uk - 549616.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Schlehe | |blackthorn/sloe |''Prunus spinosa'' is a thorny shrub with small, round, dark blue and very bitter fruits. It grows wild. In Czech language it is called "trnka". |- | [[File:C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Zwetschge | {{Inline audio|De-Zwetschge.ogg}} | plum/European plum |Scientifically ''Prunus domestica'' subsp. ''domestica.'' In Czech "švestka". |- | [[File:Prunes Rouge et Blanche Provence Cl J Weber (23379539230).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pflaume | {{Inline audio|De-Pflaume.ogg}} | plum | |- | | Mirabelle | {{Inline audio|De-Mirabelle.ogg}} | mirabelle | |- | [[File:Grapevine green.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Traube | {{Inline audio|De-Traube.ogg}} | grape |Also ''Weintraube''. |- | [[File:Gâteau Génoise Chocolat (31315341).jpeg|frameless|200x200px]] | Erdbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Erdbeere.ogg}} | strawberry | |- | [[File:3. Strobery.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Himbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Himbeere.ogg}} | raspberry | |- | [[File:Blackberries by feiern1.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Brombeere | {{Inline audio|De-Brombeere.ogg}} | blackberry |- | [[File:Blueberries (52187526180).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Heidelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Heidelbeere.ogg}} | blueberry | |- | [[File:Currants in isolation (15296707472).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Johannisbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Johannisbeere.ogg}} | currant |- | [[File:Gooseberries.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] | Stachelbeere | {{Inline audio|De-Stachelbeere.ogg}} | gooseberry | |- | [[File:Cucumis melo var. reticulatus (photo by Scott Bauer).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Melone | {{Inline audio|De-Melone.ogg}} | melon |Also ''Zuckermelone''. |- | [[File:Wassermelone (14439653646).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Wassermelone | {{Inline audio|De-Wassermelone.ogg}} | watermelon | |- | [[File:Peach close-up2.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Pfirsich | {{Inline audio|De-Pfirsich.ogg}} | peach | |- | [[File:Apricots 2 - Farmer's Market at the Ferry Building - San Francisco, CA - DSC03603.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] | Aprikose | {{Inline audio|De-Aprikose.ogg}} | apricot | |- | [[File:Nectarine.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Nektarine | {{Inline audio|De-Nektarine.ogg}} | nectarine | |- | [[File:16-09-17-WikiLovesCocktails-Zutaten-Img0158.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Orange | {{Inline audio|De-Orange.ogg}} | orange | |- | [[File:Madarines white bg.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Mandarine | {{Inline audio|De-Mandarine.ogg}} | mandarin / tangerine | |- | [[File:Lemon.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Zitrone | {{Inline audio|De-Zitrone.ogg}} | lemon |- |[[File:日光東観荘 (25622026526).jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Grapefruit |{{Inline audio|De-Grapefruit.ogg}} |grapefruit | |- |[[File:Israel, pomelo on a tree.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] |Pampelmuse |{{Inline audio|De-Pampelmuse.ogg}} |pomelo | |- | [[File:Banana.arp.750pix.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Banane | {{Inline audio|De-Banane.ogg}} | banana | |- | [[File:Kiwi (Actinidia chinensis) 1 Luc Viatour.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Kiwi | {{Inline audio|De-Kiwi.ogg}} | kiwi | |- | [[File:Ananas 2024 D.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] | Ananas | {{Inline audio|De-Ananas.ogg}} | pineapple | |- |[[File:Lychee fruits and seed.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Litschi |{{Inline audio|De-Litschi.ogg}} |lychee | |- |[[File:Cherimoya fruit hg.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Cherimoya |{{Inline audio|De-Cherimoya.ogg}} |cherimoya | |- |[[File:Feigen incir fig.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Feige |{{Inline audio|De-Feige.ogg}} |fig | |- |[[File:Bruknės .jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Preiselbeere |{{Inline audio|De-Preiselbeere2.ogg}} |mountain cranberry | |- |[[File:Elderberries - geograph.org.uk - 943642.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Holunder | |elderberry | |- |[[File:Pitaya cross section ed2.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Drachenfrucht |{{Inline audio|De-Drachenfrucht.ogg}} |pitaya |Also ''Pitaya''. |- |[[File:Figues de barbarie Tunisie.JPG|frameless|200x200px]] |Kaktusfeigen |{{Inline audio|De-Kaktusfeigen2.ogg}} |prickly pear | |- |[[File:Dattes deglet from Biskra.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Datteln |{{Inline audio|De-Datteln.ogg}} |dates | |- |[[File:Rowanberries in late August 2004 in Helsinki.jpg|frameless|200x200px]] |Drosselbeere | |rowanberry | |} === {{Inline audio|De-Farben.ogg|Farben}} – Colors === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Picture ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Notes |- | | Rot | {{Inline audio|De-Rot.ogg}} | red | |- | | Blau | {{Inline audio|De-Blau.ogg}} | blue | |- | | Grün | {{Inline audio|De-Grün.ogg}} | green | |- | | Gelb | {{Inline audio|De-Gelb.ogg}} | yellow | |- | | Schwarz | {{Inline audio|De-Schwarz.ogg}} | black | |- | | Weiß | {{Inline audio|De-Weiß.ogg}} | white | |- | | Grau | {{Inline audio|De-Grau.ogg}} | grey | |- | | Braun | {{Inline audio|De-braun.ogg}} | brown | |- | | Orange | {{Inline audio|De-Orange.ogg}} | orange | |- | | Rosa | {{Inline audio|De-Rosa.ogg}} | pink | |- | | Violett | {{Inline audio|De-Violett.ogg}} | violet | |- | | Türkis | {{Inline audio|De-Türkis.ogg}} | turquoise | |- | | Beige | {{Inline audio|De-Beige.ogg}} | beige | |- | | Gold | {{Inline audio|De-Gold.ogg}} | gold | |- | | Silber | {{Inline audio|De-Silber.ogg}} | silver | |} === Wörter mit dem Buchstaben E – Words with the letter E === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | lesen | {{Inline audio|De-lesen.ogg}} | to read | [eː] – long vowel in open syllable |- | sehen | {{Inline audio|De-sehen.ogg}} | to see | [eː] – long vowel before "h" |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher | [eː] – stressed long vowel |- | Bett | {{Inline audio|De-Bett.ogg}} | bed | [ɛ] – short vowel, closed syllable with double consonant |- | Ende | {{Inline audio|De-Ende.ogg}} | end | [ɛ] – short vowel in stressed syllable |- | essen | {{Inline audio|De-essen.ogg}} | to eat | [ɛ] – short vowel, double consonant indicates shortness |- | bitte | {{Inline audio|De-bitte.ogg}} | please | [ə] – final unstressed "e" pronounced schwa |- | alle | {{Inline audio|De-alle.ogg}} | all | [ə] – final "e" as schwa |- | Name | {{Inline audio|De-Name.ogg}} | name | [ə] – final "e" reduced to schwa |- | Café | {{Inline audio|De-Café.ogg}} | café | final "é" (from French) often not pronounced, silent |} === Wie war dein Wochenende? – How was your weekend? === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Grüß Gott. | |Greetings. | |- |Hey, Peter. | |Hi, Peter. | |- |Wie war dein Wochenende? | |How was your weekend? | |- |Am Samstag war ich zu Hause, da ich die Dokumente meines Großvaters digitalisieren wollte, und ruhte mich nachmittags aus. Am Sonntag machte ich dann einen Ausflug. Zuerst besuchte ich die Steinspirale in Úvaly und dann den Steinkreis in Kutná Hora. Ursprünglich wollte ich das Wochenende bis heute verlängern, aber da es mir nicht gut ging, fuhr ich erst am Sonntag wieder nach Hause. | |On Saturday, I was at home, having decided to digitize my grandfather's documents, and I rested in the afternoon. Then on Sunday, I went on a trip. First, I visited the stone spiral in Úvaly, and then I went to see the stone circle in Kutná Hora. Initially, I wanted to extend the weekend until today, but since I wasn't feeling well, I returned home on Sunday. | |- |Und haben Sie in den Dokumenten Ihres Großvaters etwas Interessantes entdeckt? | |And did you discover anything interesting in your grandfather's documents? | |- |Ja, ich habe dort Diplome für die Absolvierung einzelner Studienfächer gefunden. Das heißt, man hatte in den 40er Jahren nicht nur ein Abschlusszeugnis für das Studium, sondern man erhielt für jedes absolvierte Fach ein Diplom. | |Yes, I found diplomas there for completing individual subjects at university. This means that in the 1940s, they didn't just have a final diploma for their university studies, but they received a diploma for each subject completed. | |- |Was hat Ihr Großvater studiert? | |What did your grandfather study? | |- |Das Fachgebiet hieß Versicherungsstatistik oder so ähnlich. Ich glaube aber, dass er ein klassischer Statistiker oder Mathematiker war, denn er verdiente seinen Lebensunterhalt später als Programmierer und führte Computer in die Lagerverwaltung von Unternehmen ein. | |The field was called statistics-insurance, or something like that. But I think he was a classic statistician or mathematician, because he then made a living as a programmer and introduced computers into companies' warehouse management. | |- |Und wie ging es dir? | |And how were you? | |- |Ich war das ganze Wochenende zu Hause, ich hatte Zahnschmerzen. | |I was home all weekend, I had a toothache. | |- |Es tut mir Leid. | |I'm sorry. | |} === Beim Autoservice – At the car service === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- |Guten Tag | |Good day | |- |Guten Tag, wie kann ich Ihnen helfen? | |Hello, how can I help you? | |- |Sie müssen sich mein Auto ansehen. | |I need you to look at my car. | |- |Was ist daran falsch? | |What's wrong with it? | |- |Beim Schalten höre ich manchmal ein furchtbares Geräusch, als würde es einfach gegen die Gänge gehen. Das passiert nur manchmal beim Rückwärtsfahren, aber auch beim Schalten auf der Autobahn bei höherer Geschwindigkeit. | |When I shift gears, I sometimes hear a terrible noise, like it's just going against the gears. It only happens sometimes when I'm in reverse, but also when I'm shifting gears on the highway at higher speeds. | |} === Personalpronomen – Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | ich | {{Inline audio|De-ich.ogg}} | I | 1st person singular |- | du | {{Inline audio|De-du.ogg}} | you | 2nd person singular (informal) |- | er | {{Inline audio|De-er.ogg}} | he | 3rd person singular masculine |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | she | 3rd person singular feminine |- | es | {{Inline audio|De-es.ogg}} | it | 3rd person singular neuter |- | wir | {{Inline audio|De-wir.ogg}} | we | 1st person plural |- | ihr | {{Inline audio|De-ihr.ogg}} | you (plural) | 2nd person plural informal |- | sie | {{Inline audio|De-sie.ogg}} | they | 3rd person plural |- | Sie | {{Inline audio|De-Sie.ogg}} | you (formal) | Singular & plural, polite form |} === Personalpronomen in Sätzen – Personal pronouns in sentences === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Wie heißt du? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Informal question |- | Ich heiße Anna. | {{Inline audio|}} | My name is Anna. | Answer, introduce yourself |- | Wie heißen Sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your name? | Formal question |- | Ich bin Herr Müller. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am Mr. Müller. | Formal introduction |- | Woher kommst du? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you from? | Informal question about origin |- | Ich komme aus Deutschland. | {{Inline audio|}} | I come from Germany. | Answer about origin |- | Was bist du von Beruf? | {{Inline audio|}} | What is your profession? | Informal question about job |- | Ich bin Lehrer. | {{Inline audio|}} | I am a teacher. | Answer about profession |- | Was machen Sie beruflich? | {{Inline audio|}} | What do you do for a living? | More formal/professional |- | Ich arbeite als Ingenieur. | {{Inline audio|}} | I work as an engineer. | Formal/professional answer |- | Wer ist er? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is he? | Question about a male person |- | Er heißt Peter. | {{Inline audio|}} | His name is Peter. | Answer with masculine pronoun |- | Wer ist sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is she? | Question about a female person |- | Sie ist meine Freundin. | {{Inline audio|}} | She is my friend. | Feminine pronoun |- | Wer ist es? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who is it? | Question about neuter/unknown subject |- | Es ist ein Kind. | {{Inline audio|}} | It is a child. | Neuter pronoun |- | Wer sind wir? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are we? | Question with "wir" (we) |- | Wir sind Studenten. | {{Inline audio|}} | We are students. | 1st person plural |- | Wo seid ihr? | {{Inline audio|}} | Where are you (plural)? | Question with "ihr" (you, plural informal) |- | Ihr seid meine Freunde. | {{Inline audio|}} | You are my friends. | 2nd person plural informal |- | Wer sind sie? | {{Inline audio|}} | Who are they? | Question with "sie" (they) |- | Sie kommen aus Spanien. | {{Inline audio|}} | They come from Spain. | 3rd person plural |} === Länder – Countries === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Deutschland | {{Inline audio|De-Deutschland.ogg}} | Germany | |- | Österreich | {{Inline audio|De-Österreich.ogg}} | Austria | |- | Schweiz | {{Inline audio|De-Schweiz.ogg}} | Switzerland | |- | Tschechien | {{Inline audio|De-Tschechien.ogg}} | Czech Republic | |- | Slowakei | {{Inline audio|De-Slowakei.ogg}} | Slovakia | |- | Polen | {{Inline audio|De-Polen.ogg}} | Poland | |- | Ungarn | {{Inline audio|De-Ungarn.ogg}} | Hungary | |- | Frankreich | {{Inline audio|De-Frankreich.ogg}} | France | |- | Italien | {{Inline audio|De-Italien.ogg}} | Italy | |- | Spanien | {{Inline audio|De-Spanien.ogg}} | Spain | |- | Portugal | {{Inline audio|De-Portugal.ogg}} | Portugal | |- | Griechenland | {{Inline audio|De-Griechenland.ogg}} | Greece | |- | Dänemark | {{Inline audio|De-Dänemark.ogg}} | Denmark | |- | Schweden | {{Inline audio|De-Schweden.ogg}} | Sweden | |- | Norwegen | {{Inline audio|De-Norwegen.ogg}} | Norway | |- | Finnland | {{Inline audio|De-Finnland.ogg}} | Finland | |- | Russland | {{Inline audio|De-Russland.ogg}} | Russia | |- | China | {{Inline audio|De-China.ogg}} | China | |- | Australien | {{Inline audio|De-Australien.ogg}} | Australia | |- | Vereinigte Staaten | {{Inline audio|De-Vereinigte Staaten.ogg}} | United States | |} === Städte – Towns === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | |- | Bratislava | {{Inline audio|De-Bratislava.ogg}} | Bratislava | |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | |- | Budapest | {{Inline audio|De-Budapest.ogg}} | Budapest | |- | Paris | {{Inline audio|De-Paris.ogg}} | Paris | |- | Rom | {{Inline audio|De-Rom.ogg}} | Rome | |- | Madrid | {{Inline audio|De-Madrid.ogg}} | Madrid | |- | Lissabon | {{Inline audio|De-Lissabon.ogg}} | Lisbon | |- | Athen | {{Inline audio|De-Athen.ogg}} | Athens | |- | Kopenhagen | {{Inline audio|De-Kopenhagen.ogg}} | Copenhagen | |- | Stockholm | {{Inline audio|De-Stockholm.ogg}} | Stockholm | |- | Oslo | {{Inline audio|De-Oslo.ogg}} | Oslo | |- | Helsinki | {{Inline audio|De-Helsinki.ogg}} | Helsinki | |- | Moskau | {{Inline audio|De-Moskau.ogg}} | Moscow | |- | Peking | {{Inline audio|De-Peking.ogg}} | Beijing | |- | Canberra | {{Inline audio|De-Canberra.ogg}} | Canberra | |- | Washington | {{Inline audio|De-Washington.ogg}} | Washington, D.C. | |- | Berlin | {{Inline audio|De-Berlin.ogg}} | Berlin | Germany |- | Hamburg | {{Inline audio|De-Hamburg.ogg}} | Hamburg | Germany |- | München | {{Inline audio|De-München.ogg}} | Munich | Germany |- | Köln | {{Inline audio|De-Köln.ogg}} | Cologne | Germany |- | Frankfurt am Main | {{Inline audio|De-Frankfurt am Main.ogg}} | Frankfurt am Main | Germany |- | Stuttgart | {{Inline audio|De-Stuttgart.ogg}} | Stuttgart | Germany |- | Düsseldorf | {{Inline audio|De-Düsseldorf.ogg}} | Düsseldorf | Germany |- | Leipzig | {{Inline audio|De-Leipzig.ogg}} | Leipzig | Germany |- | Dortmund | {{Inline audio|De-Dortmund.ogg}} | Dortmund | Germany |- | Essen | {{Inline audio|De-Essen.ogg}} | Essen | Germany |- | Bremen | {{Inline audio|De-Bremen.ogg}} | Bremen | Germany |- | Dresden | {{Inline audio|De-Dresden.oga}} | Dresden | Germany |- | Hannover | {{Inline audio|De-Hannover.ogg}} | Hanover | Germany |- | Nürnberg | {{Inline audio|De-Nürnberg.ogg}} | Nuremberg | Germany |- | Duisburg | {{Inline audio|De-Duisburg.ogg}} | Duisburg | Germany |- | Bochum | {{Inline audio|De-Bochum.ogg}} | Bochum | Germany |- | Wuppertal | {{Inline audio|De-Wuppertal.ogg}} | Wuppertal | Germany |- | Bielefeld | {{Inline audio|De-Bielefeld.ogg}} | Bielefeld | Germany |- | Bonn | {{Inline audio|De-Bonn.ogg}} | Bonn | Germany |- | Münster | {{Inline audio|De-Münster.ogg}} | Münster | Germany |- | Wien | {{Inline audio|De-Wien.ogg}} | Vienna | Austria |- | Graz | {{Inline audio|De-Graz.ogg}} | Graz | Austria |- | Linz | {{Inline audio|De-Linz.ogg}} | Linz | Austria |- | Salzburg | {{Inline audio|De-Salzburg.ogg}} | Salzburg | Austria |- | Innsbruck | {{Inline audio|De-Innsbruck.ogg}} | Innsbruck | Austria |- | Klagenfurt | {{Inline audio|De-Klagenfurt.ogg}} | Klagenfurt | Austria |- | Villach | {{Inline audio|De-Villach.ogg}} | Villach | Austria |- | Wels | {{Inline audio|De-Wels.ogg}} | Wels | Austria |- | Sankt Pölten | {{Inline audio|De-at St Pölten.ogg}} | St. Pölten | Austria |- | Dornbirn | {{Inline audio|De-Dornbirn.ogg}} | Dornbirn | Austria |- | Zürich | {{Inline audio|De-Zürich.ogg}} | Zurich | Switzerland |- | Genf | {{Inline audio|De-Genf.ogg}} | Geneva | Switzerland |- | Basel | {{Inline audio|De-Basel.ogg}} | Basel | Switzerland |- | Bern | {{Inline audio|De-Bern.ogg}} | Bern | Switzerland |- | Lausanne | {{Inline audio|De-Lausanne.ogg}} | Lausanne | Switzerland |- | Winterthur | {{Inline audio|De-Winterthur.ogg}} | Winterthur | Switzerland |- | Luzern | {{Inline audio|De-Luzern.ogg}} | Lucerne | Switzerland |- | St. Gallen | {{Inline audio|}} | St. Gallen | Switzerland |- | Prag | {{Inline audio|De-Prag.ogg}} | Prague | Czech Republic – Praha |- | Brünn | {{Inline audio|De-Brünn.ogg}} | Brno | Czech Republic – Brno |- | Pilsen | {{Inline audio|De-Pilsen.ogg}} | Plzeň | Czech Republic – Plzeň |- | Budweis | {{Inline audio|De-Budweis.ogg}} | České Budějovice | Czech Republic – České Budějovice |- | Olmütz | {{Inline audio|De-Olmütz.ogg}} | Olomouc | Czech Republic – Olomouc |- | Reichenberg | {{Inline audio|}} | Liberec | Czech Republic – Liberec |- | Iglau | {{Inline audio|De-Iglau.ogg}} | Jihlava | Czech Republic – Jihlava |- | Eger | {{Inline audio|De-Eger.ogg}} | Cheb | Czech Republic – Cheb |- | Karlsbad | {{Inline audio|De-Karlsbad.ogg}} | Karlovy Vary | Czech Republic – Karlovy Vary |- | Warschau | {{Inline audio|De-Warschau.ogg}} | Warsaw | Poland – Warszawa |- | Krakau | {{Inline audio|De-Krakau.ogg}} | Kraków | Poland – Kraków |- | Danzig | {{Inline audio|De-Danzig.ogg}} | Gdańsk | Poland – Gdańsk |- | Breslau | {{Inline audio|De-Breslau.ogg}} | Wrocław | Poland – Wrocław |- | Stettin | {{Inline audio|De-Stettin.ogg}} | Szczecin | Poland – Szczecin |- | Posen | {{Inline audio|De-Posen.ogg}} | Poznań | Poland – Poznań |- | Kattowitz | {{Inline audio|De-Kattowitz.ogg}} | Katowice | Poland – Katowice |- | Allenstein | {{Inline audio|De-Allenstein.ogg}} | Olsztyn | Poland – Olsztyn |- | Oppeln | {{Inline audio|De-Oppeln.ogg}} | Opole | Poland – Opole |} === Berufe – Professions === {| class="wikitable" ! German ! Pronunciation ! English ! Use/Notes |- | Lehrer | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrer.ogg}} | teacher (male) | |- | Lehrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Lehrerin.ogg}} | teacher (female) | |- | Arzt | {{Inline audio|De-Arzt.ogg}} | doctor (male) | |- | Ärztin | {{Inline audio|De-Ärztin.ogg}} | doctor (female) | |- | Ingenieur | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieur.ogg}} | engineer (male) | |- | Ingenieurin | {{Inline audio|De-Ingenieurin.ogg}} | engineer (female) | |- | Verkäufer | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäufer.ogg}} | salesman | |- | Verkäuferin | {{Inline audio|De-Verkäuferin.ogg}} | saleswoman | |- | Kellner | {{Inline audio|De-Kellner.ogg}} | waiter | |- | Kellnerin | {{Inline audio|De-Kellnerin.ogg}} | waitress | |- | Polizist | {{Inline audio|De-Polizist.ogg}} | policeman | |- | Polizistin | {{Inline audio|De-Polizistin.ogg}} | policewoman | |- | Journalist | {{Inline audio|De-Journalist.ogg}} | journalist (male) | |- | Journalistin | {{Inline audio|De-Journalistin.ogg}} | journalist (female) | |- | Bauer | {{Inline audio|De-Bauer.ogg}} | farmer (male) | |- | Bäuerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäuerin.ogg}} | farmer (female) | |- | Student | {{Inline audio|De-Student.ogg}} | student (male) | |- | Studentin | {{Inline audio|De-Studentin.ogg}} | student (female) | |- | Künstler | {{Inline audio|De-Künstler.ogg}} | artist (male) | |- | Künstlerin | {{Inline audio|De-Künstlerin.ogg}} | artist (female) | |- | Programmierer | {{Inline audio|De-Programmierer.ogg}} | programmer (male) | |- | Programmiererin | {{Inline audio|De-Programmiererin.ogg}} | programmer (female) | |- | Manager | {{Inline audio|De-Manager.ogg}} | manager (male) | |- | Managerin | {{Inline audio|De-Managerin.ogg}} | manager (female) | |- | Fahrer | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrer.ogg}} | driver (male) | |- | Fahrerin | {{Inline audio|De-Fahrerin.ogg}} | driver (female) | |- | Musiker | {{Inline audio|De-Musiker.ogg}} | musician (male) | |- | Musikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Musikerin.ogg}} | musician (female) | |- | Schauspieler | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspieler.ogg}} | actor | |- | Schauspielerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schauspielerin.ogg}} | actress | |- | Koch | {{Inline audio|De-Koch.ogg}} | cook (male) | |- | Köchin | {{Inline audio|De-Köchin.ogg}} | cook (female) | |- | Architekt | {{Inline audio|De-Architekt.ogg}} | architect (male) | |- | Architektin | {{Inline audio|De-Architektin.ogg}} | architect (female) | |- | Bibliothekar | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekar.ogg}} | librarian (male) | |- | Bibliothekarin | {{Inline audio|De-Bibliothekarin.ogg}} | librarian (female) | |- | Pilot | {{Inline audio|De-Pilot.ogg}} | pilot (male) | |- | Pilotin | {{Inline audio|De-Pilotin.ogg}} | pilot (female) | |- | Krankenpfleger | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenpfleger.ogg}} | nurse (male) | |- | Krankenschwester | {{Inline audio|De-Krankenschwester.ogg}} | nurse (female) | |- | Schneider | {{Inline audio|De-Schneider.ogg}} | tailor (male) | |- | Schneiderin | {{Inline audio|De-Schneiderin.ogg}} | tailor (female) | |- | Maler | {{Inline audio|De-Maler.ogg}} | painter (male) | |- | Malerin | {{Inline audio|De-Malerin.ogg}} | painter (female) | |- | Mechaniker | {{Inline audio|De-Mechaniker.ogg}} | mechanic (male) | |- | Mechanikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Mechanikerin.ogg}} | mechanic (female) | |- | Elektriker | {{Inline audio|De-Elektriker.ogg}} | electrician (male) | |- | Elektrikerin | {{Inline audio|De-Elektrikerin.ogg}} | electrician (female) | |- | Bäcker | {{Inline audio|De-Bäcker.ogg}} | baker (male) | |- | Bäckerin | {{Inline audio|De-Bäckerin.ogg}} | baker (female) | |- | Metzger | {{Inline audio|De-Metzger.ogg}} | butcher (male) | |- | Metzgerin | {{Inline audio|}} | butcher (female) | |- | Forscher | {{Inline audio|De-Forscher.ogg}} | researcher (male) | |- | Forscherin | {{Inline audio|De-Forscherin.ogg}} | researcher (female) | |- | Fotograf | {{Inline audio|De-Fotograf.ogg}} | photographer (male) | |- | Fotografin | {{Inline audio|De-Fotografin.ogg}} | photographer (female) | |- | Designer | {{Inline audio|De-Designer.ogg}} | designer (male) | |- | Designerin | {{Inline audio|De-Designerin.ogg}} | designer (female) | |- | Schriftsteller | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftsteller.ogg}} | writer (male) | |- | Schriftstellerin | {{Inline audio|De-Schriftstellerin.ogg}} | writer (female) | |} === Fragen und Antworten – Questions and answers === {| class="wikitable" !German !Pronunciation !English !Use/Notes |- | | |What is your name? | |- | | |My name is Hans. | |- | | |Where do you come from? | |- | | |I come from Spain. | |- | | |Who is he? | |- | | |That is my brother. | |} == Texts == [[Category:Audio-visual German language materials|Pronunciation]] [[Category:Pronunciation]] dkztyrr6k2o8wj4om0v8ywtd46yhz06 0 326060 2816673 2816664 2026-06-24T13:08:53Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Wikidata and the semantic web */ merging paragraphs presenting wikidata and semantic web/knowledge graph 2816673 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal. == Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article screening === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===<!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --> Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).<ref name=":5" /> We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus. ==== Main subjects ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |} <!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template --> Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Study types ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |[...] |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |[...] |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Research site ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Authors ==== We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Results === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling knowledge == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 51bh0r3ljcl9961o5awh5j81jpkwqsw 2816676 2816673 2026-06-24T13:14:31Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Study types */ 2816676 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal. == Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article screening === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===<!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --> Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).<ref name=":5" /> We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus. ==== Main subjects ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |} <!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template --> Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Study types ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Research site ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Authors ==== We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Results === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling knowledge == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} i0pouuw96o4aob2a3jtyu2jllrzrhky 2816677 2816676 2026-06-24T13:20:43Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Methodology */ precising methodology 2816677 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article screening === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===<!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --> Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).<ref name=":5" /> We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus. ==== Main subjects ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |} <!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template --> Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Study types ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Research site ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Authors ==== We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Results === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling knowledge == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} dud6nf4zfpyyp8qlm8jl49kh2tj0amy 2816687 2816677 2026-06-24T13:31:01Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata */ introduction of the section and harmonization of the corresponding titles 2816687 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===<!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --> Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).<ref name=":5" /> We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus. ==== Main subjects ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |} <!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template --> Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Study types ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Research site ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Authors ==== We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling knowledge == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 223bw04bk7ajih85oo3na7bx20bwnzn 2816688 2816687 2026-06-24T13:32:46Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Modelling knowledge */ changing title to match introduction 2816688 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===<!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --> Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).<ref name=":5" /> We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus. ==== Main subjects ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |} <!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template --> Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Study types ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Research site ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Authors ==== We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling the content of litterature reviews == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} e0asav65i3lmcsolc68hrye9vmn6zsp 2816698 2816688 2026-06-24T14:09:10Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Article classification through meta-data enrichement */ defining meta-data enrichement, precising how authors properties work 2816698 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadatas to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study if relevant. ==== Main subjects ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |} <!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template --> Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Study types ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Research site ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Authors ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling the content of litterature reviews == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 9evc2dduru8j1j8q62q59tut1r19hz2 2816705 2816698 2026-06-24T14:20:07Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Article classification through metadata enrichement */ precising steps for each metadata property 2816705 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers. ==== Recommandations ==== >Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features. == Modelling the content of litterature reviews == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} l4tikmqprkj53znfbzx2ie9li51m4r8 2816719 2816705 2026-06-24T15:02:44Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus */ developping paragraph on future possibilities 2816719 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == Modelling the content of litterature reviews == Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. [define knowledge modelling] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} s308qdd6w5mh4lqf0hq6ptbyg32cd3g 2816728 2816719 2026-06-24T15:35:32Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Modelling the content of litterature reviews */ details on concept mapping 2816728 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and existing methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' linking two concepts (arrows)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram]] ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified. * ==== Causal networks ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : 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Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} 4p7ct90xcudscri1r8qosdifrbtvp8q 2816733 2816728 2026-06-24T15:49:24Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks */ sorting paragraphs on knowledge modelling methods 2816733 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Modelling causes in wikidata ==== Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} czqsi3vp76x3ff8vx5t6le5yxiqalti 2816736 2816733 2026-06-24T15:56:00Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Thematic networks */ adding image of causal loop diagram 2816736 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Wikidata ontology ==== Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Modelling causes in wikidata ==== Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) == Interactions with the Wikidata community == * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} hzuq4fs2w6cp7051u5zg5kenhlx10ef 2816738 2816736 2026-06-24T16:07:54Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Wikidata ontology */ discussion on the nature of things/ontology 2816738 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref> we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ==== Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. ==== Modelling causes in wikidata ==== Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: * {{Wikidata entity link|P828}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}} * {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. === Ontological questions === Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Assumptions about the nature of things ==== Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. There is little doubt that a complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} contains all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... There is all the conceptual entities used to make these artefact function (knowledge, words...). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} sdgyq66ds9rrr249mm88ejbob1ftqn6 2816741 2816738 2026-06-24T16:27:05Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences */ streamlining the conceptual modelling section 2816741 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. == Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} == We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. === Ontological questions === Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Assumptions about the nature of things ==== Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. There is little doubt that a complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} contains all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... There is all the conceptual entities used to make these artefact function (knowledge, words...). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} lgumi6ib0kbymxxi5mo91kkwsa4qqyg 2816745 2816741 2026-06-24T16:48:18Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Testing concept modelling on energy democracy (Q14944319) */ discussion on ontological issues 2816745 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}. * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked for feedback from the Wikidata community. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. === Ontological questions === Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Assumptions about the nature of things ==== Our first attempt show that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision (that is not always present in the sources we are working with). Consequently, defining an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) can quickly escalate into defining an {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. There is little doubt that a complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} contains all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... There is all the conceptual entities used to make these artefact function (knowledge, words...). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} mle6dbeag81st7ky4ndqlgavnkbfm10 2816811 2816745 2026-06-25T11:28:08Z Jeanne Noiraud 1366702 /* Conceptual modelling */ adding properties for modelling causes and link toward discussion 2816811 wikitext text/x-wiki == Acknowledgements == The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the paper in the discussion section. === Contributors === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Affiliation !ORCID !Contribution |- |Adélie Ranville |IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208) |https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135 |Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing |- |Amélie E. Pereira |Laboratoire DICEN IDF | |Meta-data enrichement, article writing |- |Finn Nielsen |Technical University of Denmark |https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356 |Data visualisation |} Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review == Introduction == Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}</ref>. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}</ref>. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}</ref><ref>Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. </ref>. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination. === The problem of academic information overload === Global scientific output doubles every nine years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}</ref>. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily. === The problem of knowledge synthesis === The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable<ref>{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}</ref> and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}</ref>,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia. === The problem of scientific results dissemination === There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}</ref>. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}</ref> and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}</ref>. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}</ref>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}</ref>, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow<ref name=":10">Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., & Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. <nowiki>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf</nowiki> </ref>. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap<ref name=":10" />. Because of gender segregation in disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}</ref>, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}</ref>, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]]. == Toward a living review on just sustainability transition == === Just sustainability transition === Just sustainability transition transition is "a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}</ref>. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions<ref name=":0" />. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions<ref name=":0" />. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}</ref> and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> and fragmented results coming from various disciplines<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>. Then, making literature reviews "living" would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories. === Living reviews === The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked<ref name="Why1">{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}</ref>. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4">{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}</ref>. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" />. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem<ref name="Why1" /><ref name="Why4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/</ref>. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research<ref name="Why1" /><ref name=":6" />, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes<ref name=":12" />, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}</ref>. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are "on the rise" (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}</ref>. Human validation stays notably necessary<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}</ref>,<ref name=":13" />. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process. === Wikimedia projects === Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a "collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}</ref>"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. "A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}</ref> A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}</ref> Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Fotopoulou">{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.</ref><ref name=":18" />. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}</ref>. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?''' In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : ●       '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations. ●       '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…). ●       '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs. ●       '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data). We also have 2 assumptions : ●       '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool. ●       '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers. == Methodology == Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of the corpus of articles we selected in Wikidata. The second step was to model the content of the findings of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on aWikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy. == 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata == The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''', and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus. === Database search === Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions<ref name=":4" /> such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}</ref>. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}</ref>. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures<ref name=":0" />. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions). We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Keywords search !Database !Search date !Filters !Number of results |- |(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) |Web of Science (all databases, all dates) |December 2025 |Document type: Review Article |362 |} === Article selection === Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were * Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...) * Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...) * Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions * Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy * Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973 === Importing selected articles into Wikidata === To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the "export to Wikidata QuickStatements" function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata. Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|"Merge" gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items. === Article classification through metadata enrichement === Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt)<ref name=":5" />. By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ==== We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Main topic !Description |- |[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]] |acceptability |characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose |- |[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]] |accountability |concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making |- |[[d:Q421953|Q421953]] |actor–network theory |theory within social science |- |[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]] |affordability | |- |[[d:Q185836|Q185836]] |age of a person |time elapsed since a person was born |- |[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]] |animal studies |field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways |- |[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]] |awareness |state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns |- |[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]] |blue carbon |carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems |- |[[d:Q430460|Q430460]] |capability approach |economic theory |- |[[d:Q7569|Q7569]] |child |human between birth and puberty |- |[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]] |civic engagement |individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern |- |[[d:Q125928|Q125928]] |climate change |human-caused changes to climate on Earth |- |[[d:Q260607|Q260607]] |climate change adaptation |process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities |- |[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]] |climate justice |term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice |- |[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]] |co-creation |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]] |co-design |approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders |- |[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]] |coproduction |product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role |- |[[d:Q11024|Q11024]] |communication |act of conveying intended meaning |- |[[d:Q177634|Q177634]] |community |social unit of human organisms who share common values |- |[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]] |community choice aggregation |alternative energy supply system |- |[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]] |community energy |delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects |- |[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]] |community participation |The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community |- |[[d:Q188843|Q188843]] |cosmopolitanism |ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality |- |[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]] |decarbonization |change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions |- |[[d:Q284289|Q284289]] |deliberative democracy |form of democracy focusing on consensus |- |[[d:Q7174|Q7174]] |democracy |form of government |- |[[d:Q552284|Q552284]] |distributive justice |concept of the socially just allocation of goods |- |[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]] |diversity |concept in sociology and political studies |- |[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]] |ecological economics |research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems |- |[[d:Q8134|Q8134]] |economics |social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services |- |[[d:Q868575|Q868575]] |empowerment |providing increased autonomy |- |[[d:Q295865|Q295865]] |ecosystem service |benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems |- |[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]] |energy citizenship |involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions |- |[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&redirect=no Q131444737] |community energy |[redirection] |- |[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]] |energy consumption |amount of energy or power used |- |[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]] |senior |elderly person |- |[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]] |energy democracy |concept in environmental justice movement |- |[[d:Q192704|Q192704]] |energy efficiency |ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine |- |[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]] |energy modeling |process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them |- |[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]] |energy policy |policy addressing energy issues |- |[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]] |energy poverty |lack of access to modern energy services |- |[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]] |energy production |conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans |- |[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]] |energy justice |subconcept of economic equality |- |[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]] |energy renovation |building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used |- |[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]] |energy security |national security considerations of energy availability |- |[[d:Q837718|Q837718]] |energy storage |capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time |- |[[d:Q795757|Q795757]] |energy transition |long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems |- |[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]] |environmental justice |system of fairness |- |[[d:Q771773|Q771773]] |fairness |concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society |- |[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]] |farming system |method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics |- |[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]] |food system |all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population |- |[[d:Q4421|Q4421]] |forest |dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area |- |[[d:Q48277|Q48277]] |gender |social concept which distinguish the different gender categories |- |[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]] |governance |all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society |- |[[d:Q8458|Q8458]] |human rights |inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled |- |[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]] |human rights violation |act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights |- |[[d:Q103817|Q103817]] |indigenous people |first inhabitants of an area and their descendants |- |[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]] |indigenous science |indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method |- |[[d:Q770480|Q770480]] |injustice |quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes |- |[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]] |interactional justice |the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment |- |[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]] |intersectionnality |theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression |- |[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]] |just transition |Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy. |- |[[d:Q366139|Q366139]] |legitimation |the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group |- |[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]] |living lab |user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities |- |[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]] |low income |home with little money |- |[[d:Q43619|Q43619]] |natural environment |all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof |- |[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]] |nature-positive |global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 |- |[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]] |non-human |organism not in the genus Homo |- |[[d:Q728646|Q728646]] |partnership |arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests |- |[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]] |policy making |the act of developing policy |- |[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]] |political theory |class of theory |- |[[d:Q265425|Q265425]] |postcolonialism |academic discipline |- |[[d:Q25107|Q25107]] |power |ability to influence the behavior of others |- |[[d:Q442100|Q442100]] |procedural justice |fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources |- |[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]] |project governance |management framework |- |[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]] |public engagement |Policy-making practice |- |[[d:Q541936|Q541936]] |public participation |participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes |- |[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]] |recognition justice |social philosophy theory |- |[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]] |renewable electricity |electricity from renweable sources |- |[[d:Q12705|Q12705]] |renewable energy |energy collected from renewable resources |- |[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]] |renewable energy policy | |- |[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]] |restorative justice |approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement |- |[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]] |rural population |inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural |- |[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]] |smart system |adaptive intelligent systems |- |[[d:Q187588|Q187588]] |social class |group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors |- |[[d:Q264892|Q264892]] |social justice |concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied |- |[[d:Q34749|Q34749]] |social science |academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society |- |[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]] |stakeholder participation |involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity |- |[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]] |sustainability transition | |- |[[d:Q219416|Q219416]] |sustainability |ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state |- |[[d:Q131201|Q131201]] |sustainable development |mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations |- |[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]] |Sustainable Development Goals |set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change |- |[[d:Q69883|Q69883]] |urban planning |technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment |- |[[d:Q920600|Q920600]] |urban renewal |program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay |- |[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]] |vulnerable population |group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent |- |[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]] |water-management | |- |[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]] |well-being |measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction |- |[[d:Q467|Q467]] |woman |female adult human |- |[[d:Q188867|Q188867]] |future studies |study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures |- |[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]] |participatory design |active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process |}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ==== Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&property=P279&mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information & Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}</ref>. The types of reviews were : {| class="wikitable" |+ !Qid !Study type !Description |- |[[d:Q603441|Q603441]] |bibliometrics |statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles |- |[[d:Q472342|Q472342]] |scientometrics |study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation |- |[[d:Q815382|Q815382]] |meta-analysis |statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources |- |[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]] |systematic review |publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic |- |[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]] |literature review |process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic |- |[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]] |meta-regression |statistical tool used in meta-analyses |- |[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]] |realist evaluation |theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes |- |[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]] |combinatorial meta-analysis |study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset |- |[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]] |network meta-analysis |meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions |- |[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]] |scoping review |search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |- |[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]] |conceptual review |academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature |- |[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]] |critical review |type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research |- |[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]] |integrative literature review |type of literature review |- |[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]] |narrative review |type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis |}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ==== When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article "{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}" focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}. ==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ==== When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by attributing a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking these identifiers to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages. === Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus === To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata. The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.''' ==== Advantages of Wikidata ==== Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles and anyone can add data. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, "energy transition" was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. ==== Limitations of Wikidata ==== Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to "filter" the part of the knowledge graph we were working on. Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. ==== Future possbilities ==== A solution to the limitations would be to developp the links between Wikidata and other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. Building corpus of more precise academic metadata on Wikidata could also ultimately improve the precision of catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and crowdsourced corpus built in Wikidata could be used to train more precise taging algorythms. == 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews == The goal of this step was to model the content of the findings of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of a knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. === Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks === ==== Concept maps ==== [[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)<ref name=":19">Cañas, Alberto J., et al. "CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment." (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf</ref>. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}</ref>. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap])<ref name=":19" />. The "box and arrow" logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data. ==== Thematic networks ==== [[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]] A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}</ref>. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}</ref>. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data<ref name=":7" />. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not always specified. [[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]] ==== Causal diagrams ==== The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref>. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about "[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}</ref> Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can "feedback" (two variables can influence each other)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}</ref>. === Knowledge modelling in Wikidata === ==== Conceptual modelling ==== We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts. Definitions encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}</ref>, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}</ref>. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing approaches coming from psychology and philsosophy attempting to determine the content of concepts<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}</ref>. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them. * Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}... * Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}. * Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en). * Essence: the content of a concept is "something" deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what its properties will be. * Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}. ==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==== To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic : * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}} * {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} We read each paper and used them as source to manually enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated "Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}</ref>, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&oldid=2495982191. We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked for feedback from the Wikidata community. Ontology challenges: *{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. *'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion "{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}". However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly. * '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes. * '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model "meta-research" statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations * '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it. Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports "because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}</ref>. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. Other challenges * Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that "9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources". Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}) * When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence "management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}</ref>, "choice" could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as "choice" can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them. Advantages : * Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}}) * Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian. === Ontological questions === Wikidata "supports multiple coexisting classification" and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}</ref> It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.<ref name=":8" /> See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en ==== Assumptions about the nature of things ==== Our first attempt show that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision (that is not always present in the sources we are working with). Consequently, defining an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) can quickly escalate into defining an {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things). Critical realists posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)<ref>Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.</ref>. There is little doubt that a complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} contains all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... There is all the conceptual entities used to make these artefact function (knowledge, words...). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. == Data visualisation == === Filter statements === * Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH * Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}). === Mapping a concept === Scholia request "topic in context" : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy] === Mapping sources consensus === Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight. == Writing == Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below, and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). === The issue of text interoperability === A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, except for the management of references. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication. There are also uncertaineties regarding how to combine texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? Will academic publisher accept such new writing practices while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and we invite the open science community to discuss this issue. == Future research == The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data<ref name=":9" />. Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf === Wikidata for systematic categorizing === In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}</ref>. == Funding == This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603. == Data == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title |- | [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review |- | [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review |- | [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter? |- | [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset. |- | [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies? |- | [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection |- | [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development |- | [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research |- | [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition |- | [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning |- | [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view |- | [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory |- | [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries |- | [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review |- | [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies |- | [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes |- | [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation |- | [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives |- | [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies |- | [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice? |- | [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review |- | [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research |- | [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape |- | [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models |- | [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review |- | [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions |- | [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation |- | [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings |- | [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda |- | [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review |- | [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework |- | [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende |- | [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa |- | [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities |- | [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion |- | [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review |- | [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights |- | [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review |- | [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations |- | [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance |- | [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions |- | [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review |- | [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice |- | [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice |- | [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review |- | [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review |- | [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions |- | [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition |- | [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy |- | [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends |- | [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience |} == References == {{References}} erqeud5sl0uh9uz10cf3qpkaoxeoxe7 0 326339 2816773 2811051 2026-06-24T23:12:40Z Scogdill 1331941 2816773 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Overview== A. N. Wilson says,<blockquote>At Cimiez, in April 1897, the Queen found herself staying in the same hotel as the great Sarah Bernhardt: as venerated for her acting as she was celebrated for her rackety life of love. (Bertie, as the Queen was no doubt completely aware, had become obsessed by her when she did a London season in 1879, attending her [963–964] performances night after night; though she was only a flirtation, she was invited to his Coronation years later, and placed with Mrs Keppel, Jennie Churchill and the other mistresses in the chancel gallery nicknamed the ‘King’s Loose Box’. ...)<ref>Wilson, A. N. ''Victoria: A Life''. Penguin, 2014. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria/id828766078.</ref>{{rp|963–964 of 1204}}</blockquote> ==Also Known As== * Family name: Bernhard * Henriette-Rosine Bernard ==Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies== ===Acquaintances=== ===Friends=== * Charles de Morny, Duke of Morny (half-brother of Napoleon III)<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2025-12-07|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1326131063|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Charles Gounod<ref name=":0" /> * Madame Guérard, lived with Bernhardt and Maurice<ref name=":0" /> * George Sand ===Lovers=== * Henri, Hereditary Prince de Ligne (1864)<ref name=":0" /> ===Enemies=== [[File:Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_Sarah_Bernhardt_TCS_2_(Cleopatra)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891, Sarony, non-cropped version available]] [[File:Sarah_Bernhardt,_1891_LCCN2016852695.jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891]] ==Organizations and Social Networks== [[File:Sara_Bernhardt_-_Sarony,_N.Y._LCCN90716396.jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891, can get better copy from LoC[[File:Sarah_Bernardt.JPG|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1893]]]] ==Timeline== '''1857''', Bernhardt found out that her father had died.<ref name=":0" /> '''1862''', Bernhardt's debut at the Comédie-Française.<ref name=":0" /> '''1862 August 31''', Bernhardt's debut at the Theatre Français.<ref name=":0" /> '''1864''', Bernhardt moved to the Gymnase theatre company, from which she was invited to recite 2 poems at a reception at the Tuileries Palace hosted by Empress Eugènie and Napoleon III, but she unwittingly read poetry by Victor Hugo, a critic of the monarchy, and the court walked out.<ref name=":0" /> '''1866 early''', Bernhardt read for Felix Duquesnel, director of the Théâtre de L'Odéon, nearly as prestigious to the Comédie-Française but with a less traditional repertoire.<ref name=":0" /> '''1884''', Bernhardt created the role of Theodora in the new Sardou play. '''1896''', Bernhardt<blockquote>used the new technology of lithography to produce vivid color posters, and in 1894, she hired Czech artist Alphonse Mucha to design the first of a series of posters for her play ''Gismonda''. He continued to make posters of her for six years.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-30|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1303400174|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>Mucha's lithographs were in the Art Nouveau style. His poster of Salammbô is shown at the very top of the section on [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Gwendolen Bourke's costume for the ball]]. [[File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec,_Sarah_Bernhardt_in_"Cleopatra"_(Sarah_Bernhardt_dans_"Cléopatre"),_1896,_NGA_42139.jpg|left|thumb|Toulouse-Lautrec's Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1896]] == Major Roles == === Cleopatra === Sarah Bernhardt performed Victorien Sardou's and Émile Moreau's 1890 ''Cléopâtra'' (with music by Xavier Leroux).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>She habitually took a personal interest in her costumes, sometimes doing research in museums and art galleries,<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-30|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1303400174|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> and in ''Cléopâtra'' she used her own pet garter snakes for the asp that kills her. She was photographed in the costume of the 1891 performances of ''Cleopatra'' (first 3 photographs on the right). Henri Toulouse-Lautrec drew her in the same role in 1896 (below left). ==== The Historical Cleopatra ==== Cleopatra lived from 70/69 B.C.E. to 10 or 12 August 30 B.C.E., the last of the Hellenistic pharaohs.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> But nonscholarly late 19th-century Britons, Europeans and Americans would have known her less as a historical figure than a cultural one, by her presence in the arts and in popular culture. About 6,000–7,000 references to Cleopatra appear per year in British newspapers between 1890 and 1891, so Cleopatra was present as a name referring generally to the powerful queen of antiquity, especially of Egypt, Rome and Greece. She was painted by the major painters of the late 19th century and appeared in plays, novels, operas, ballets and poems. She is rendered white almost universally by Europeans and especially Americans<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-20|title=Egyptomania in the United States|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptomania_in_the_United_States&oldid=1286505313|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> of whatever century. And beyond her presence as herself, ships were named after her, and she is implicated in depictions of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony as well as the "Egyptomania" of the time, including Giuseppe Verdi's popular 1871 ''Aida'',<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-13|title=Aida|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aida&oldid=1305615525|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which is set in "Old Kingdom" Egypt (that is, some undetermined time in the far past). Egypt was present in the imaginations of the Romantics and kept there by the Victorians, by the deciphering of hieroglyphics beginning with the Rosetta Stone in 1822,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-15|title=Rosetta Stone|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosetta_Stone&oldid=1305991621|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> by the presence of Egyptian artifacts in the British Museum, and by the widely discussed role in the 1870s of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, the Earl of Beaconsfield in the purchase of British control of the Suez Canal.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-26|title=Benjamin Disraeli|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Disraeli&oldid=1302642906|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Lillie Langtry as Cleopatra.jpg|alt=Old photo of a woman with her long hair down, dressed as a queen from the ancient world of Egypt|thumb|Lillie Langtry as Cleopatra, 1891]] Besides Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'', other plays, late-19th-century paintings or novels featuring Cleopatra would have been reviewed and advertised in contemporary periodicals. For example, Émile Moreau and Victorien Sardou's ''Cléopâtre'' was produced in 1890, starring [[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Bernhardt|Sarah Bernhardt]], who took the show on tour to the U.K. and U.S. Lillie Langtry also performed Cleopatra in Shakespeare's play and was photographed by society photographer W. & D. Downey (bottom right). H. Rider Haggard renamed his 1890 ''Harmachio'' in 1891 to ''Cleopatra: Being an Account of the Fall and Vengeance of '''Harmachis''''' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_(Haggard_novel)<nowiki>].</nowiki> * Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1875 Cleopatra,1883 The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra) * Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1896 Cleopatra on the Terraces of Philae [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman_-_Cleopatra_on_the_Terraces_of_Philae.JPG<nowiki>])</nowiki> * Alexandre Cabanel (1887, ''Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_Testing_Poisons_on_Condemned_Prisoners<nowiki>])</nowiki> * John Collier (1890 ''The Death of Cleopatra'') * John William Waterhouse (1888 Cleopatra) * Richard Caton Woodville: ''Cleopatra'' ** ''The Death of Cleopatra'' (1889) for ''The Illustrated London News'' * and many more Although it is too late to be an influence on any costume at this ball, in 1898 George Grossmith, Jr., and Paul Rubens created the burlesque ''Great Caesar''.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> In 1893, ''The Queen'' advertised "the Cleopatra," a "charming evening cloak, in rich Bengaline Silk, lined Silk."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 9th edition of the ''Encylopædia Britannica'', the edition that would have been available at this time, has an article about Cleopatra that runs about one full column. It emphasizes her "remarkable charms of person": <blockquote>CLEOPATRA (''Κλεπάτρα''), the name of several Egyptian princesses of the house of the Ptolemies. The best known was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, born 69 <small>B</small>.<small>C</small>. Her father left her, at the age of seventeen, heir to his kingdom jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy, whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few years afterwards her brother, or rather her guardians, deprived her of all royal authority. She withdrew into Syria, and there made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. It was at this juncture that Julius Cæsar followed Pompey into Egypt, resolved to settle there, if possible, the existing dispute as to the throne. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra, which she was not slow in bringing to bear upon him, soon won him entirely to her side; and as Ptolemy and his advisers still refused to admit her to a share in the kingdom, Cæsar undertook a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger brother, to whom she was also contracted in marriage. Her relations with Cæsar were matter of public notoriety, and soon after his return to Rome she joined him there, in company with her boy-husband (of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison), but living openly with her Roman lover, somewhat to the scandal of his fellow-citizens. After Cæsar’s assassination, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at once to her native country. But subsequently, during the civil troubles at Rome, she took the part of Antony, on whom she is said to have already made some impression in her earlier years, when he was campaigning in Egypt. When he was in Cilicia, she made a purpose journey to visit him, sailing up the Cydnus in a gorgeously-decked galley, arrayed in all the attractive splendour which Eastern magnificence could bring in aid of her personal charms. Antony became from that time forth her infatuated slave, followed her to Egypt, and lived with her there for some time in the most profuse and wanton luxury. They called themselves “Osiris” and “Isis,” and claimed to be regarded as divinities. His marriage with Octavia broke this connection for a while, but it was soon renewed, and Cleopatra assisted him in his future campaigns both with money and supplies. This infatuation of his rival with a personage already so unpopular at Rome as Cleopatra, was taken advantage of by Octavianus Cæsar (Augustus), who declared war against her personally. In the famous seafight at Actium, between the fleets of Octavianus and Antony, Cleopatra, who had accompanied him into action with an Egyptian squadron, took to flight while the issue was yet doubtful, and though hotly pursued by the enemy succeeded in escaping to Alexandria, where she was soon joined by her devoted lover. When the cause of Antony was irretrievably ruined, and all her attempts to strengthen herself against the Roman conqueror by means of foreign alliances had failed, she made overtures of submission. Octavianus suggested to her, as a way to his favour, the assassination of his enemy Antony. She seems to have entertained the base proposal, — enticing him to join her in [Col. 1c-2a] a mausoleum which she had built, in order that “they might die together,” and where he fulfilled his part of the compact by committing suicide, in the belief that she had already done so. The charms which had succeeded so easily with Julius and with Antony failed to move the younger Cæsar, though he at once granted her an interview; and rather than submit to be carried by him as a prisoner to Rome, she put an end to her life — by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the common version of the story — in the thirty-ninth year of her age. With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Besides her remarkable charms of person, she had very considerable abilities, and unusual literary tastes. She is said to have been able to converse in seven languages. She had three children by Antony, and, as some say, a son, called Cæsarion, by Julius Cæsar.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:Theodora - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy) - croped.jpg|alt=Photograph of an ancient mosaic showing woman with a halo and with attendants|left|thumb|Detail of icon of Theodora and attendants in the Basilica San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy]] [[File:Sarah Bernhardt as Theodora by Nadar.jpg|alt=Old photograph of a woman barring a door and acting like she's overhearing something|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt, 1884, Theodora]] === Theodora === [[File:Sarah Bernhardt as the Empress Theodora.jpg|alt=Old photograph of an actor seated on a throne|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt, seated as Theodora, 1884]] For Sardou's 1884 ''Theodora'', Bernhardt visited Ravenna and based her costumes for the title character on her sketches of the clothing of the icon in the mosaic murals there.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Sarah Bernhardt: Return to Paris, European tour, Fédora to Theodora (1881–1886)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Bernhardt#Return_to_Paris,_European_tour,_Fédora_to_Theodora_(1881–1886)|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 6th-century mosaic (left) shows Theodora, who has a halo. Her headdress is very elaborately bejeweled. Her cloak and underdress are not ornate like later the theatrical costumes based on it, but they both have a decorative panel at the hemline. The attendant to Theodora's left is wearing a drape with a pattern of circles. Later designers of costumes may have repeated the motif of circles and the panels at the hemlines. Two images of Bernhardt in costume show two different highly theatrical costumes from Sardou's play. In the first (above right), Bernhardt is wearing a distinctive belted tabard over an underdress. The tabard is decorated with a motif of appliquéd circles, and the underdress has a panel at the bottom of what may be faces in circles. The second costume (below right) shows Theodora as more regal and formal, but the motifs of appliquéd circles on the tabard and the panel at the hem of the underdress are repeated. ==== The Historical Theodora ==== The 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' has a substantial entry on her:<blockquote>THEODORA, the wife of the emperor J<small>USTINIAN</small> (''q''.''v''.), was born probably in Constantinople, though according to some in Cyprus, in the early years of the 6th century, and died in 547. We shall first give the usually received account of her life and character, and then proceed to inquire how far this account deserves to be accepted. According to Procopius, our chief, but by no means a trustworthy authority for her life, she was the daughter of Acacius, a bear-feeder of the amphitheatre at Constantinople to the Green Faction, and while still a child was sent on to the stage to earn her living in the performances called mimes. She had no gift for either music or dancing, but made herself notorious by the spirit and impudence of her acting in the rough farces, as one may call them, which delighted the crowd of the capital. Becoming a noted courtesan, she accompanied a certain Hecebolus to Pentapolis (in North Africa), of which he had been appointed governor, and, having quarrelled with him, betook herself first to Alexandria, and then back to Constantinople through the cities of Asia Minor. In Constantinople (where, according to a late but apparently not quite groundless story, she now endeavoured to support herself by spinning, and may therefore have been trying to reform her life) she attracted the notice of Justinian, then patrician, and, as the all-powerful nephew of the emperor Justin, practically ruler of the empire. He desired to marry her, but could not overcome the opposition of his aunt, the empress Euphemia. After her death (usually assigned to the year 523) the emperor yielded, and, as a law, dating from the time of Constantine, forbade the marriage of women who had followed the stage with senators, this law was repealed. Thereupon Justinian married Theodora, whom he had already caused to be raised to the patriciate. They were some time after (527) admitted by Justin to a share in the sovereignty; and, on his death four months later, Justinian and Theodora became sole rulers of the Roman world. He was then about forty-four years of age, and she some twenty years younger. Procopius relates in his unpublished history (Άνέκδοπα) many repulsive tales regarding Theodora’s earlier life, but his evident hatred of her, though she had been more than ten years dead when the ''Anecdota'' were written, and the extravagances which the book contains, oblige us to regard him as a very doubtful witness. Some confirmation of the reported opposition of the imperial family to the marriage has been found in the story regarding the conduct of Justinian’s own mother Vigilantia, which Nicholas Alemanni, the first editor of the ''Anecdota'', in his notes to that book, quotes from a certain “Life of Justinian” by Theophilus, to which he frequently refers, without saying where he found it. Since the article J<small>USTINIAN</small> (''q''.''v''.) was published, the present writer has discovered in Rome what is believed to be the only MS. of this so-called life of Justinian; and his examination of its contents, which he has lately published, makes him think it worthless as an authority. See article T<small>HEOPHILUS</small>. Theodora speedily acquired unbounded influence over her husband. He consulted her in everything, and allowed her to interfere directly, as and when she pleased, in the government of the empire. She had a right to interfere, for she was not merely his consort, but empress regnant, and as such entitled equally with himself to the exercise of all prerogatives. In the most terrible crisis of Justinian’s reign, the great Nika insurrection of 532, her courage and firmness in refusing to fly when the rebels were attacking the palace saved her husband’s crown, and no doubt strengthened her command over his mind. Officials took an oath of allegiance to her as well as to the emperor (''Nov''., viii.). She even corresponded with foreign ambassadors, and instructed Belisarius how to deal with the popes. Pro- copius describes her as acting with harshness, seizing on trivial pretexts persons who had offended her, stripping some of their property, throwing others into dungeons, where they were cruelly tortured or kept for years without the knowledge of their friends. The city was full of her spies, who reported to her everything said against herself or the administration. She surrounded herself with ceremonious pomp, and required all who approached to abase themselves in a manner new even to that half-Oriental court. She was an incessant and tyrannical match-maker, forcing men to accept wives and women to accept husbands at her caprice. She constituted herself the protectress of faithless wives against outraged husbands, yet professed great zeal for the moral reformation of the city, enforcing severely the laws against vice, and immuring in a “house of repentance” on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus five hundred courtesans whom she had swept out of the streets of the capital. How much of all this is true we have no means of determining, for it rests on the sole word of Procopius. But there are slight indications in other writers that she had a reputation for severity. In the religious strife which distracted the empire Theodora took part with the Monophysites, and her coterie usually contained several leading prelates and monks of that party. As Justinian was a warm upholder of the decrees of Chalcedon, this difference of the royal pair excited much remark and indeed much suspicion. Many saw in it a design to penetrate the secrets of both ecelesiastical factions, and so to rule more securely. In other matters also the wife spoke and acted very differently from the husband; but their differences do not seem to have disturbed either his affection or his confidence. The maxim in Constantinople was that the empress was a stronger and a safer friend than the emperor; for, while he abandoned his favourites to her wrath, she stood by her protégés, and never failed to punish any one whose heedless tongue had assailed her character. Theodora bore to Justinian no son, but one daughter, — at least it would seem that her grandson, who is twice mentioned, was the offspring of a legitimate daughter, whose name, however, is not given. According to Procopius, she had before her marriage become the mother of a son, who when grown up returned from Arabia, revealed himself to her, and forthwith disappeared for ever; but this is a story to be received with distrust. That her behaviour as a wife was irreproachable may be gathered from the fact that Procopius mentions only one scandal affecting it, the case of Areobindus. Even he does not seem to believe this case, for, while referring to it as a mere rumour, the only proof he gives is that, suspecting Areobindus of some offence, she had torture applied to this supposed paramour. Her health was delicate, and, though she took all possible care of it, frequently quitting the capital for the seclusion of her villas on the Asiatic shore, she died comparatively young. Theodora was small in stature and rather pale, but with a graceful figure, beautiful features, and a piercing glance. There remains in the apse of the famous church of St Vitale at Ravenna a contemporaneous mosaic portrait of her, to which the artist, notwithstanding the stiffness of the material, has succeeded in giving some character. [The next paragraphs are printed in smaller font.] The above account is in substance that which historians of the last two centuries and a half have accepted and repeated regarding this famous empress. But it must be admitted to be open to serious doubts. Everything relating to the early career of Theodora, the faults of her girlhood, the charges of cruelty and insolence in her government of the empire, rest on the sole authority of the Anecdota of Procopius, — a book whose credit is shaken by its bitterness and extravagance. If we reject it, little is left against her, except of course that action in ecclesiastical affairs which excited the wrath of Baronius, who had denounced her before the ''Anecdota'' were published. In favour of the picture which Procopius gives of the empress it may be argued (1) that she certainly did interfere constantly and [Col. 1c–2a] arbitrarily in the administration of public affairs, and showed herself therein the kind of person who would be cruel and unscrupulous in her choice of means, and (2) that we gather from other writers an impression that she was harsh and tyrannical, as, for instance, from the references to her in the lives of the popes in the ''Liber Pontificalis'' (which used to pass under the name of Anastasius, the papal librarian). Her threat to the person whom she commanded to bring Vigilius to her was ‘‘nisi hoc feceris, per Viventem in sæcula excoriari te faciam.” Much of what we find in these lives is legendary, but they are some evidence of Theodora’s reputation. Again (3) the statute (''Cod''., v. 4, 23) which repeals the older law so far as relates to ''sceniæ mulieres'' is now generally attributed to Justin, and agrees with the statement of Procopius that an alteration of the law was made to legalize her marriage. There is therefore reason for holding that she was an actress, and, considering what the Byzantine stage was (as appears even by the statute in question), her life cannot have been irreproachable. Against the evidence of Procopius, with such confirmations as have been indicated, there is to be set the silence of other writers, contemporaries like Agathias and Evagrius, as well as such later historians as Theophanes, none of whom repeat the charges as to Theodora’s life before her marriage. To this consideration no great weight need be attached. It is difficult to establish any view of the controversy without a long and minute examination of the authorities, and in particular of the ''Anecdota''. But the most probable conclusions seem to be — (1) that the odious details which Procopius gives, and which Gibbon did not blush to copy, deserve no more weight than would be given nowadays to the malignant scandal of disappointed courtiers under a despotic government, where scandal is all the blacker because it is propagated in secret (see P<small>ROCOPIUS</small>); (2) that apparently she was an actress and a courtesan, and not improbably conspicuous in both those charaeters; and (3) that it is impossible to determine how far the specific charges of cruelty and oppression brought against her by Procopius deserve credence. We are not bound to accept them, for they are uncorroborated; yet the accounts of Justinian’s government given in the ''Anecdota'' agree in too many respects with what we know ''aliunde'' to enable us to reject them altogether; and it must be admitted that there is a certain internal consistency in the whole picture which the ''Anecdota'' present of the empress. About the beauty, the intellectual gifts, and the imperious will of Theodora there can be no doubt, for as to these all our authorities agree. She was evidently an extraordinary person, born to shine in any station of life. Her fortunes have employed many pens. Among the latest serious works dealing with them may be mentioned M. Antonin Débidour’s ''L’Impératrice Theodora: Etude Critique'', Paris, 1885, which endeavours to vindicate her from the aspersions of Procopius; and among more imaginative writings are Sir Henry Pottinger’s interesting romance ''Blue and Green'' (London, Hurst and Blackett, 1879), M. Rhangabé’s tragedy Θεοδωρα (Leipsic, 1884), and M. Sardou’s play ''Theodora'', produced in Paris in 1884. See also Dr F. Dahn’s ''Prokopios von Cäsarea'', 1865. (J. BR.)<ref>J. Br. [James Bryce]. "Theodora." ''Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Information''. Ed., Thomas Spencer Baynes, 9th ed. Vol. XXIII (Vol. 23): ''T to UPS''. pp. 253, Col. 2a – 254, Col. 2b. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%2023%20%28T-UPS%29%20193592732.23/page/254/mode/2up.</ref></blockquote>Edward Gibbons' ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' has a passage on Theodora, which would also have been easily available to the people who attended the Duchess of Devonshire's ball. It is part of his chapter on the "Reign of Justinian":<blockquote>Those who believe that the female mind is totally depraved by the loss of chastity, will eagerly listen to all the invectives of private envy, or popular resentment which have dissembled the virtues of Theodora, exaggerated her vices, and condemned with rigor the venal or voluntary sins of the youthful harlot. From a motive of shame, or contempt, she often declined the servile homage of the multitude, escaped from the odious light of the capital, and passed the greatest part of the year in the palaces and gardens which were pleasantly seated on the sea-coast of the Propontis and the Bosphorus. Her private hours were devoted to the prudent as well as grateful care of her beauty, the luxury of the bath and table, and the long slumber of the evening and the morning. Her secret apartments were occupied by the favorite women and eunuchs, whose interests and passions she indulged at the expense of justice; the most illustrious person ages of the state were crowded into a dark and sultry antechamber, and when at last, after tedious attendance, they were admitted to kiss the feet of Theodora, they experienced, as her humor might suggest, the silent arrogance of an empress, or the capricious levity of a comedian. Her rapacious avarice to accumulate an immense treasure, may be excused by the apprehension of her husband's death, which could leave no alternative between ruin and the throne; and fear as well as ambition might exasperate Theodora against two generals, who, during the malady of the emperor, had rashly declared that they were not disposed to acquiesce in the choice of the capital. But the reproach of cruelty, so repugnant even to her softer vices, has left an indelible stain on the memory of Theodora. Her numerous spies observed, and zealously reported, every action, or word, or look, injurious to their royal mistress. Whomsoever they accused were cast into her peculiar prisons, ... inaccessible to the inquiries of justice; and it was rumored, that the torture of the rack, or scourge, had been inflicted in the presence of the female tyrant, insensible to the voice of prayer or of pity. ... Some of these unhappy victims perished in deep, unwholesome dungeons, while others were permitted, after the loss of their limbs, their reason, or their fortunes, to appear in the world, the living monuments of [38–39] her vengeance, which was commonly extended to the children of those whom she had suspected or injured. The senator or bishop, whose death or exile Theodora had pronounced, was delivered to a trusty messenger, and his diligence was quickened by a menace from her own mouth. "If you fail in the execution of my commands, I swear by Him who liveth forever, that your skin shall be flayed from your body." ... If the creed of Theodora had not been tainted with heresy, her exemplary devotion might have atoned, in the opinion of her contemporaries, for pride, avarice, and cruelty. But, if she employed her influence to assuage the intolerant fury of the emperor, the present age will allow some merit to her religion, and much indulgence to her speculative errors. ... The name of Theodora was introduced, with equal honor, in all the pious and charitable foundations of Justinian; and the most benevolent institution of his reign may be ascribed to the sympathy of the empress for her less fortunate sisters, who had been seduced or compelled to embrace the trade of prostitution. A palace, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, was converted into a stately and spacious monastery, and a liberal maintenance was assigned to five hundred women, who had been collected from the streets and brothels of Constantinople. In this safe and holy retreat, they were devoted to perpetual confinement; and the despair of some, who threw themselves headlong into the sea, was lost in the gratitude of the penitents, who had been delivered from sin and misery by their generous benefactress. ... The prudence of Theodora is celebrated by Justinian himself; and his laws are attributed to the sage counsels of his most reverend wife whom he had received as the gift of the Deity. ... Her courage was displayed amidst the tumult of the people and the terrors of the court. Her chastity, from the moment of her union with Justinian, is founded on the silence of her implacable enemies; and although the daughter of Acacius might be satiated with love, yet some applause is due to the firmness of a mind which could sacrifice pleasure and habit to the stronger sense either of duty or interest. The wishes and prayers of Theodora could never obtain the blessing of a lawful son, and she buried an infant daughter, the sole offspring of her marriage. ... Notwithstanding this disappointment, her dominion was permanent and absolute; she preserved, by art or merit, the affections of Justinian; and their seeming dissensions were always fatal to the courtiers who believed them to be sincere. Perhaps her health had been [39–40] impaired by the licentiousness of her youth; but it was always delicate, and she was directed by her physicians to use the Pythian warm baths. In this journey, the empress was followed by the Praetorian praefect, the great treasurer, several counts and patricians, and a splendid train of four thousand attendants: the highways were repaired at her approach; a palace was erected for her reception; and as she passed through Bithynia, she distributed liberal alms to the churches, the monasteries, and the hospitals, that they might implore Heaven for the restoration of her health. ... At length, in the twenty-fourth year of her marriage, and the twenty-second of her reign, she was consumed by a cancer; ... and the irreparable loss was deplored by her husband, who, in the room of a theatrical prostitute, might have selected the purest and most noble virgin of the East. [ellipsis points mark where footnote numbers were edited out]<ref>Gibbons, Edward. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. Vol. 4. The Ages Digital Library Collections. Albany, OR: Books for the Ages, 1997. Pp. 40–42. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/DeclineAndFallOfTheRomanEmpireVol.4ByEdwardGibbons/page/38/mode/2up.</ref></blockquote> == Demographics == * Nationality: French ===Residences=== ==Family== * Julie or Youle (Judith) Bernard<ref name=":0" /> * [father] *# Henriette-Rosine Bernard (22 October 1844 – 26 March 1923)<ref name=":0" /> * Sarah Bernhardt (Henriette-Rosine Bernard) (22 October 1844 – 26 March 1923) * Henri, Hereditary Prince de Ligne (not married, but the father of) *# Maurice Bernhardt (22 December 1864 – ) * Ambroise Aristide Damala (15 January 1855 – 18 August 1889)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-03|title=Jacques Damala|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Damala&oldid=1320196285|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> ===Relations=== ==Questions and Notes== ==Bibliography== {{reflist}} 1bu0njqllkfhn0lidn3iuqj3py171ej 2816775 2816773 2026-06-24T23:17:12Z Scogdill 1331941 2816775 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Overview== A. N. Wilson says,<blockquote>At Cimiez, in April 1897, the Queen found herself staying in the same hotel as the great Sarah Bernhardt: as venerated for her acting as she was celebrated for her rackety life of love. (Bertie, as the Queen was no doubt completely aware, had become obsessed by her when she did a London season in 1879, attending her [963–964] performances night after night; though she was only a flirtation, she was invited to his Coronation years later, and placed with Mrs Keppel, Jennie Churchill and the other mistresses in the chancel gallery nicknamed the ‘King’s Loose Box’. ...)<ref>Wilson, A. N. ''Victoria: A Life''. Penguin, 2014. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria/id828766078.</ref>{{rp|963–964 of 1204}}</blockquote> ==Also Known As== * Family name: Bernhard * Henriette-Rosine Bernard ==Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies== ===Acquaintances=== ===Friends=== * Charles de Morny, Duke of Morny (half-brother of Napoleon III)<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2025-12-07|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1326131063|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Charles Gounod<ref name=":0" /> * Madame Guérard, lived with Bernhardt and Maurice<ref name=":0" /> * George Sand ===Lovers=== * Henri, Hereditary Prince de Ligne (1864)<ref name=":0" /> ===Enemies=== [[File:Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_Sarah_Bernhardt_TCS_2_(Cleopatra)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891, Sarony, non-cropped version available]] [[File:Sarah_Bernhardt,_1891_LCCN2016852695.jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891]] ==Organizations and Social Networks== [[File:Sara_Bernhardt_-_Sarony,_N.Y._LCCN90716396.jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891, can get better copy from LoC[[File:Sarah_Bernardt.JPG|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1893]]]] ==Timeline== '''1857''', Bernhardt found out that her father had died.<ref name=":0" /> '''1862''', Bernhardt's debut at the Comédie-Française.<ref name=":0" /> '''1862 August 31''', Bernhardt's debut at the Theatre Français.<ref name=":0" /> '''1864''', Bernhardt moved to the Gymnase theatre company, from which she was invited to recite 2 poems at a reception at the Tuileries Palace hosted by Empress Eugènie and Napoleon III, but she unwittingly read poetry by Victor Hugo, a critic of the monarchy, and the court walked out.<ref name=":0" /> '''1866 early''', Bernhardt read for Felix Duquesnel, director of the Théâtre de L'Odéon, nearly as prestigious to the Comédie-Française but with a less traditional repertoire.<ref name=":0" /> '''1884''', Bernhardt created the role of Theodora in the new Sardou play. '''1896''', Bernhardt<blockquote>used the new technology of lithography to produce vivid color posters, and in 1894, she hired Czech artist Alphonse Mucha to design the first of a series of posters for her play ''Gismonda''. He continued to make posters of her for six years.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-30|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1303400174|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>Mucha's lithographs were in the Art Nouveau style. His poster of Salammbô is shown at the very top of the section on [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Gwendolen Bourke's costume for the ball]]. [[File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec,_Sarah_Bernhardt_in_"Cleopatra"_(Sarah_Bernhardt_dans_"Cléopatre"),_1896,_NGA_42139.jpg|left|thumb|Toulouse-Lautrec's Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1896]] == Major Roles == === Cleopatra === Sarah Bernhardt performed Victorien Sardou's and Émile Moreau's 1890 ''Cléopâtra'' (with music by Xavier Leroux).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>She habitually took a personal interest in her costumes, sometimes doing research in museums and art galleries,<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-30|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1303400174|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> and in ''Cléopâtra'' she used her own pet garter snakes for the asp that kills her. She was photographed in the costume of the 1891 performances of ''Cleopatra'' (first 3 photographs on the right). Henri Toulouse-Lautrec drew her in the same role in 1896 (below left). ==== The Historical Cleopatra ==== Cleopatra lived from 70/69 B.C.E. to 10 or 12 August 30 B.C.E., the last of the Hellenistic pharaohs.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> But nonscholarly late 19th-century Britons, Europeans and Americans would have known her less as a historical figure than a cultural one, by her presence in the arts and in popular culture. About 6,000–7,000 references to Cleopatra appear per year in British newspapers between 1890 and 1891, so Cleopatra was present as a name referring generally to the powerful queen of antiquity, especially of Egypt, Rome and Greece. She was painted by the major painters of the late 19th century and appeared in plays, novels, operas, ballets and poems. She is rendered white almost universally by Europeans and especially Americans<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-20|title=Egyptomania in the United States|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptomania_in_the_United_States&oldid=1286505313|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> of whatever century. And beyond her presence as herself, ships were named after her, and she is implicated in depictions of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony as well as the "Egyptomania" of the time, including Giuseppe Verdi's popular 1871 ''Aida'',<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-13|title=Aida|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aida&oldid=1305615525|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which is set in "Old Kingdom" Egypt (that is, some undetermined time in the far past). Egypt was present in the imaginations of the Romantics and kept there by the Victorians, by the deciphering of hieroglyphics beginning with the Rosetta Stone in 1822,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-15|title=Rosetta Stone|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosetta_Stone&oldid=1305991621|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> by the presence of Egyptian artifacts in the British Museum, and by the widely discussed role in the 1870s of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, the Earl of Beaconsfield in the purchase of British control of the Suez Canal.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-26|title=Benjamin Disraeli|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Disraeli&oldid=1302642906|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Lillie Langtry as Cleopatra.jpg|alt=Old photo of a woman with her long hair down, dressed as a queen from the ancient world of Egypt|thumb|Lillie Langtry as Cleopatra, 1891]] Besides Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'', other plays, late-19th-century paintings or novels featuring Cleopatra would have been reviewed and advertised in contemporary periodicals. For example, Émile Moreau and Victorien Sardou's ''Cléopâtre'' was produced in 1890, starring [[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Bernhardt|Sarah Bernhardt]], who took the show on tour to the U.K. and U.S. Lillie Langtry also performed Cleopatra in Shakespeare's play and was photographed by society photographer W. & D. Downey (bottom right). H. Rider Haggard renamed his 1890 ''Harmachio'' in 1891 to ''Cleopatra: Being an Account of the Fall and Vengeance of '''Harmachis''''' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_(Haggard_novel)<nowiki>].</nowiki> * Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1875 Cleopatra,1883 The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra) * Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1896 Cleopatra on the Terraces of Philae [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman_-_Cleopatra_on_the_Terraces_of_Philae.JPG<nowiki>])</nowiki> * Alexandre Cabanel (1887, ''Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_Testing_Poisons_on_Condemned_Prisoners<nowiki>])</nowiki> * John Collier (1890 ''The Death of Cleopatra'') * John William Waterhouse (1888 Cleopatra) * Richard Caton Woodville: ''Cleopatra'' ** ''The Death of Cleopatra'' (1889) for ''The Illustrated London News'' * and many more Although it is too late to be an influence on any costume at this ball, in 1898 George Grossmith, Jr., and Paul Rubens created the burlesque ''Great Caesar''.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> In 1893, ''The Queen'' advertised "the Cleopatra," a "charming evening cloak, in rich Bengaline Silk, lined Silk."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 9th edition of the ''Encylopædia Britannica'', the edition that would have been available at this time, has an article about Cleopatra that runs about one full column. It emphasizes her "remarkable charms of person": <blockquote>CLEOPATRA (''Κλεπάτρα''), the name of several Egyptian princesses of the house of the Ptolemies. The best known was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, born 69 <small>B</small>.<small>C</small>. Her father left her, at the age of seventeen, heir to his kingdom jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy, whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few years afterwards her brother, or rather her guardians, deprived her of all royal authority. She withdrew into Syria, and there made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. It was at this juncture that Julius Cæsar followed Pompey into Egypt, resolved to settle there, if possible, the existing dispute as to the throne. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra, which she was not slow in bringing to bear upon him, soon won him entirely to her side; and as Ptolemy and his advisers still refused to admit her to a share in the kingdom, Cæsar undertook a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger brother, to whom she was also contracted in marriage. Her relations with Cæsar were matter of public notoriety, and soon after his return to Rome she joined him there, in company with her boy-husband (of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison), but living openly with her Roman lover, somewhat to the scandal of his fellow-citizens. After Cæsar’s assassination, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at once to her native country. But subsequently, during the civil troubles at Rome, she took the part of Antony, on whom she is said to have already made some impression in her earlier years, when he was campaigning in Egypt. When he was in Cilicia, she made a purpose journey to visit him, sailing up the Cydnus in a gorgeously-decked galley, arrayed in all the attractive splendour which Eastern magnificence could bring in aid of her personal charms. Antony became from that time forth her infatuated slave, followed her to Egypt, and lived with her there for some time in the most profuse and wanton luxury. They called themselves “Osiris” and “Isis,” and claimed to be regarded as divinities. His marriage with Octavia broke this connection for a while, but it was soon renewed, and Cleopatra assisted him in his future campaigns both with money and supplies. This infatuation of his rival with a personage already so unpopular at Rome as Cleopatra, was taken advantage of by Octavianus Cæsar (Augustus), who declared war against her personally. In the famous seafight at Actium, between the fleets of Octavianus and Antony, Cleopatra, who had accompanied him into action with an Egyptian squadron, took to flight while the issue was yet doubtful, and though hotly pursued by the enemy succeeded in escaping to Alexandria, where she was soon joined by her devoted lover. When the cause of Antony was irretrievably ruined, and all her attempts to strengthen herself against the Roman conqueror by means of foreign alliances had failed, she made overtures of submission. Octavianus suggested to her, as a way to his favour, the assassination of his enemy Antony. She seems to have entertained the base proposal, — enticing him to join her in [Col. 1c-2a] a mausoleum which she had built, in order that “they might die together,” and where he fulfilled his part of the compact by committing suicide, in the belief that she had already done so. The charms which had succeeded so easily with Julius and with Antony failed to move the younger Cæsar, though he at once granted her an interview; and rather than submit to be carried by him as a prisoner to Rome, she put an end to her life — by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the common version of the story — in the thirty-ninth year of her age. With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Besides her remarkable charms of person, she had very considerable abilities, and unusual literary tastes. She is said to have been able to converse in seven languages. She had three children by Antony, and, as some say, a son, called Cæsarion, by Julius Cæsar.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:Theodora - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy) - croped.jpg|alt=Photograph of an ancient mosaic showing woman with a halo and with attendants|left|thumb|Detail of icon of Theodora and attendants in the Basilica San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy]] [[File:Sarah Bernhardt as Theodora by Nadar.jpg|alt=Old photograph of a woman barring a door and acting like she's overhearing something|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt, 1884, Theodora]] === Theodora === [[File:Sarah Bernhardt as the Empress Theodora.jpg|alt=Old photograph of an actor seated on a throne|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt, seated as Theodora, 1884]] For Sardou's 1884 ''Theodora'', Bernhardt visited Ravenna and based her costumes for the title character on her sketches of the clothing of the icon in the mosaic murals there.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Sarah Bernhardt: Return to Paris, European tour, Fédora to Theodora (1881–1886)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Bernhardt#Return_to_Paris,_European_tour,_Fédora_to_Theodora_(1881–1886)|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 6th-century mosaic (left) shows Theodora, who has a halo. Her headdress is very elaborately bejeweled. Her cloak and underdress are not ornate like later the theatrical costumes based on it, but they both have a decorative panel at the hemline. The attendant to Theodora's left is wearing a drape with a pattern of circles. Later designers of costumes may have repeated the motif of circles and the panels at the hemlines. Two images of Bernhardt in costume show two different highly theatrical costumes from Sardou's play. In the first (above right), Bernhardt is wearing a distinctive belted tabard over an underdress. The tabard is decorated with a motif of appliquéd circles, and the underdress has a panel at the bottom of what may be faces in circles. The second costume (below right) shows Theodora as more regal and formal, but the motifs of appliquéd circles on the tabard and the panel at the hem of the underdress are repeated. ==== The Historical Theodora ==== The 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' has a substantial entry on her under her own name:<blockquote>THEODORA, the wife of the emperor J<small>USTINIAN</small> (''q''.''v''.), was born probably in Constantinople, though according to some in Cyprus, in the early years of the 6th century, and died in 547. We shall first give the usually received account of her life and character, and then proceed to inquire how far this account deserves to be accepted. According to Procopius, our chief, but by no means a trustworthy authority for her life, she was the daughter of Acacius, a bear-feeder of the amphitheatre at Constantinople to the Green Faction, and while still a child was sent on to the stage to earn her living in the performances called mimes. She had no gift for either music or dancing, but made herself notorious by the spirit and impudence of her acting in the rough farces, as one may call them, which delighted the crowd of the capital. Becoming a noted courtesan, she accompanied a certain Hecebolus to Pentapolis (in North Africa), of which he had been appointed governor, and, having quarrelled with him, betook herself first to Alexandria, and then back to Constantinople through the cities of Asia Minor. In Constantinople (where, according to a late but apparently not quite groundless story, she now endeavoured to support herself by spinning, and may therefore have been trying to reform her life) she attracted the notice of Justinian, then patrician, and, as the all-powerful nephew of the emperor Justin, practically ruler of the empire. He desired to marry her, but could not overcome the opposition of his aunt, the empress Euphemia. After her death (usually assigned to the year 523) the emperor yielded, and, as a law, dating from the time of Constantine, forbade the marriage of women who had followed the stage with senators, this law was repealed. Thereupon Justinian married Theodora, whom he had already caused to be raised to the patriciate. They were some time after (527) admitted by Justin to a share in the sovereignty; and, on his death four months later, Justinian and Theodora became sole rulers of the Roman world. He was then about forty-four years of age, and she some twenty years younger. Procopius relates in his unpublished history (Άνέκδοπα) many repulsive tales regarding Theodora’s earlier life, but his evident hatred of her, though she had been more than ten years dead when the ''Anecdota'' were written, and the extravagances which the book contains, oblige us to regard him as a very doubtful witness. Some confirmation of the reported opposition of the imperial family to the marriage has been found in the story regarding the conduct of Justinian’s own mother Vigilantia, which Nicholas Alemanni, the first editor of the ''Anecdota'', in his notes to that book, quotes from a certain “Life of Justinian” by Theophilus, to which he frequently refers, without saying where he found it. Since the article J<small>USTINIAN</small> (''q''.''v''.) was published, the present writer has discovered in Rome what is believed to be the only MS. of this so-called life of Justinian; and his examination of its contents, which he has lately published, makes him think it worthless as an authority. See article T<small>HEOPHILUS</small>. Theodora speedily acquired unbounded influence over her husband. He consulted her in everything, and allowed her to interfere directly, as and when she pleased, in the government of the empire. She had a right to interfere, for she was not merely his consort, but empress regnant, and as such entitled equally with himself to the exercise of all prerogatives. In the most terrible crisis of Justinian’s reign, the great Nika insurrection of 532, her courage and firmness in refusing to fly when the rebels were attacking the palace saved her husband’s crown, and no doubt strengthened her command over his mind. Officials took an oath of allegiance to her as well as to the emperor (''Nov''., viii.). She even corresponded with foreign ambassadors, and instructed Belisarius how to deal with the popes. Pro- [253–254] copius describes her as acting with harshness, seizing on trivial pretexts persons who had offended her, stripping some of their property, throwing others into dungeons, where they were cruelly tortured or kept for years without the knowledge of their friends. The city was full of her spies, who reported to her everything said against herself or the administration. She surrounded herself with ceremonious pomp, and required all who approached to abase themselves in a manner new even to that half-Oriental court. She was an incessant and tyrannical match-maker, forcing men to accept wives and women to accept husbands at her caprice. She constituted herself the protectress of faithless wives against outraged husbands, yet professed great zeal for the moral reformation of the city, enforcing severely the laws against vice, and immuring in a “house of repentance” on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus five hundred courtesans whom she had swept out of the streets of the capital. How much of all this is true we have no means of determining, for it rests on the sole word of Procopius. But there are slight indications in other writers that she had a reputation for severity. In the religious strife which distracted the empire Theodora took part with the Monophysites, and her coterie usually contained several leading prelates and monks of that party. As Justinian was a warm upholder of the decrees of Chalcedon, this difference of the royal pair excited much remark and indeed much suspicion. Many saw in it a design to penetrate the secrets of both ecelesiastical factions, and so to rule more securely. In other matters also the wife spoke and acted very differently from the husband; but their differences do not seem to have disturbed either his affection or his confidence. The maxim in Constantinople was that the empress was a stronger and a safer friend than the emperor; for, while he abandoned his favourites to her wrath, she stood by her protégés, and never failed to punish any one whose heedless tongue had assailed her character. Theodora bore to Justinian no son, but one daughter, — at least it would seem that her grandson, who is twice mentioned, was the offspring of a legitimate daughter, whose name, however, is not given. According to Procopius, she had before her marriage become the mother of a son, who when grown up returned from Arabia, revealed himself to her, and forthwith disappeared for ever; but this is a story to be received with distrust. That her behaviour as a wife was irreproachable may be gathered from the fact that Procopius mentions only one scandal affecting it, the case of Areobindus. Even he does not seem to believe this case, for, while referring to it as a mere rumour, the only proof he gives is that, suspecting Areobindus of some offence, she had torture applied to this supposed paramour. Her health was delicate, and, though she took all possible care of it, frequently quitting the capital for the seclusion of her villas on the Asiatic shore, she died comparatively young. Theodora was small in stature and rather pale, but with a graceful figure, beautiful features, and a piercing glance. There remains in the apse of the famous church of St Vitale at Ravenna a contemporaneous mosaic portrait of her, to which the artist, notwithstanding the stiffness of the material, has succeeded in giving some character. [The next paragraphs are printed in smaller font.] The above account is in substance that which historians of the last two centuries and a half have accepted and repeated regarding this famous empress. But it must be admitted to be open to serious doubts. Everything relating to the early career of Theodora, the faults of her girlhood, the charges of cruelty and insolence in her government of the empire, rest on the sole authority of the Anecdota of Procopius, — a book whose credit is shaken by its bitterness and extravagance. If we reject it, little is left against her, except of course that action in ecclesiastical affairs which excited the wrath of Baronius, who had denounced her before the ''Anecdota'' were published. In favour of the picture which Procopius gives of the empress it may be argued (1) that she certainly did interfere constantly and [Col. 1c–2a] arbitrarily in the administration of public affairs, and showed herself therein the kind of person who would be cruel and unscrupulous in her choice of means, and (2) that we gather from other writers an impression that she was harsh and tyrannical, as, for instance, from the references to her in the lives of the popes in the ''Liber Pontificalis'' (which used to pass under the name of Anastasius, the papal librarian). Her threat to the person whom she commanded to bring Vigilius to her was ‘‘nisi hoc feceris, per Viventem in sæcula excoriari te faciam.” Much of what we find in these lives is legendary, but they are some evidence of Theodora’s reputation. Again (3) the statute (''Cod''., v. 4, 23) which repeals the older law so far as relates to ''sceniæ mulieres'' is now generally attributed to Justin, and agrees with the statement of Procopius that an alteration of the law was made to legalize her marriage. There is therefore reason for holding that she was an actress, and, considering what the Byzantine stage was (as appears even by the statute in question), her life cannot have been irreproachable. Against the evidence of Procopius, with such confirmations as have been indicated, there is to be set the silence of other writers, contemporaries like Agathias and Evagrius, as well as such later historians as Theophanes, none of whom repeat the charges as to Theodora’s life before her marriage. To this consideration no great weight need be attached. It is difficult to establish any view of the controversy without a long and minute examination of the authorities, and in particular of the ''Anecdota''. But the most probable conclusions seem to be — (1) that the odious details which Procopius gives, and which Gibbon did not blush to copy, deserve no more weight than would be given nowadays to the malignant scandal of disappointed courtiers under a despotic government, where scandal is all the blacker because it is propagated in secret (see P<small>ROCOPIUS</small>); (2) that apparently she was an actress and a courtesan, and not improbably conspicuous in both those charaeters; and (3) that it is impossible to determine how far the specific charges of cruelty and oppression brought against her by Procopius deserve credence. We are not bound to accept them, for they are uncorroborated; yet the accounts of Justinian’s government given in the ''Anecdota'' agree in too many respects with what we know ''aliunde'' to enable us to reject them altogether; and it must be admitted that there is a certain internal consistency in the whole picture which the ''Anecdota'' present of the empress. About the beauty, the intellectual gifts, and the imperious will of Theodora there can be no doubt, for as to these all our authorities agree. She was evidently an extraordinary person, born to shine in any station of life. Her fortunes have employed many pens. Among the latest serious works dealing with them may be mentioned M. Antonin Débidour’s ''L’Impératrice Theodora: Etude Critique'', Paris, 1885, which endeavours to vindicate her from the aspersions of Procopius; and among more imaginative writings are Sir Henry Pottinger’s interesting romance ''Blue and Green'' (London, Hurst and Blackett, 1879), M. Rhangabé’s tragedy Θεοδωρα (Leipsic, 1884), and M. Sardou’s play ''Theodora'', produced in Paris in 1884. See also Dr F. Dahn’s ''Prokopios von Cäsarea'', 1865. (J. BR.)<ref>J. Br. [James Bryce]. "Theodora." ''Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Information''. Ed., Thomas Spencer Baynes, 9th ed. Vol. XXIII (Vol. 23): ''T to UPS''. pp. 253, Col. 2a – 254, Col. 2b. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%2023%20%28T-UPS%29%20193592732.23/page/254/mode/2up.</ref></blockquote>Edward Gibbons' ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' has a passage on Theodora, which would also have been easily available to the people who attended the Duchess of Devonshire's ball. It is part of his chapter on the "Reign of Justinian":<blockquote>Those who believe that the female mind is totally depraved by the loss of chastity, will eagerly listen to all the invectives of private envy, or popular resentment which have dissembled the virtues of Theodora, exaggerated her vices, and condemned with rigor the venal or voluntary sins of the youthful harlot. From a motive of shame, or contempt, she often declined the servile homage of the multitude, escaped from the odious light of the capital, and passed the greatest part of the year in the palaces and gardens which were pleasantly seated on the sea-coast of the Propontis and the Bosphorus. Her private hours were devoted to the prudent as well as grateful care of her beauty, the luxury of the bath and table, and the long slumber of the evening and the morning. Her secret apartments were occupied by the favorite women and eunuchs, whose interests and passions she indulged at the expense of justice; the most illustrious person ages of the state were crowded into a dark and sultry antechamber, and when at last, after tedious attendance, they were admitted to kiss the feet of Theodora, they experienced, as her humor might suggest, the silent arrogance of an empress, or the capricious levity of a comedian. Her rapacious avarice to accumulate an immense treasure, may be excused by the apprehension of her husband's death, which could leave no alternative between ruin and the throne; and fear as well as ambition might exasperate Theodora against two generals, who, during the malady of the emperor, had rashly declared that they were not disposed to acquiesce in the choice of the capital. But the reproach of cruelty, so repugnant even to her softer vices, has left an indelible stain on the memory of Theodora. Her numerous spies observed, and zealously reported, every action, or word, or look, injurious to their royal mistress. Whomsoever they accused were cast into her peculiar prisons, ... inaccessible to the inquiries of justice; and it was rumored, that the torture of the rack, or scourge, had been inflicted in the presence of the female tyrant, insensible to the voice of prayer or of pity. ... Some of these unhappy victims perished in deep, unwholesome dungeons, while others were permitted, after the loss of their limbs, their reason, or their fortunes, to appear in the world, the living monuments of [38–39] her vengeance, which was commonly extended to the children of those whom she had suspected or injured. The senator or bishop, whose death or exile Theodora had pronounced, was delivered to a trusty messenger, and his diligence was quickened by a menace from her own mouth. "If you fail in the execution of my commands, I swear by Him who liveth forever, that your skin shall be flayed from your body." ... If the creed of Theodora had not been tainted with heresy, her exemplary devotion might have atoned, in the opinion of her contemporaries, for pride, avarice, and cruelty. But, if she employed her influence to assuage the intolerant fury of the emperor, the present age will allow some merit to her religion, and much indulgence to her speculative errors. ... The name of Theodora was introduced, with equal honor, in all the pious and charitable foundations of Justinian; and the most benevolent institution of his reign may be ascribed to the sympathy of the empress for her less fortunate sisters, who had been seduced or compelled to embrace the trade of prostitution. A palace, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, was converted into a stately and spacious monastery, and a liberal maintenance was assigned to five hundred women, who had been collected from the streets and brothels of Constantinople. In this safe and holy retreat, they were devoted to perpetual confinement; and the despair of some, who threw themselves headlong into the sea, was lost in the gratitude of the penitents, who had been delivered from sin and misery by their generous benefactress. ... The prudence of Theodora is celebrated by Justinian himself; and his laws are attributed to the sage counsels of his most reverend wife whom he had received as the gift of the Deity. ... Her courage was displayed amidst the tumult of the people and the terrors of the court. Her chastity, from the moment of her union with Justinian, is founded on the silence of her implacable enemies; and although the daughter of Acacius might be satiated with love, yet some applause is due to the firmness of a mind which could sacrifice pleasure and habit to the stronger sense either of duty or interest. The wishes and prayers of Theodora could never obtain the blessing of a lawful son, and she buried an infant daughter, the sole offspring of her marriage. ... Notwithstanding this disappointment, her dominion was permanent and absolute; she preserved, by art or merit, the affections of Justinian; and their seeming dissensions were always fatal to the courtiers who believed them to be sincere. Perhaps her health had been [39–40] impaired by the licentiousness of her youth; but it was always delicate, and she was directed by her physicians to use the Pythian warm baths. In this journey, the empress was followed by the Praetorian praefect, the great treasurer, several counts and patricians, and a splendid train of four thousand attendants: the highways were repaired at her approach; a palace was erected for her reception; and as she passed through Bithynia, she distributed liberal alms to the churches, the monasteries, and the hospitals, that they might implore Heaven for the restoration of her health. ... At length, in the twenty-fourth year of her marriage, and the twenty-second of her reign, she was consumed by a cancer; ... and the irreparable loss was deplored by her husband, who, in the room of a theatrical prostitute, might have selected the purest and most noble virgin of the East. [ellipsis points mark where footnote numbers were edited out]<ref>Gibbons, Edward. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. Vol. 4. The Ages Digital Library Collections. Albany, OR: Books for the Ages, 1997. Pp. 40–42. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/DeclineAndFallOfTheRomanEmpireVol.4ByEdwardGibbons/page/38/mode/2up.</ref></blockquote> == Demographics == * Nationality: French ===Residences=== ==Family== * Julie or Youle (Judith) Bernard<ref name=":0" /> * [father] *# Henriette-Rosine Bernard (22 October 1844 – 26 March 1923)<ref name=":0" /> * Sarah Bernhardt (Henriette-Rosine Bernard) (22 October 1844 – 26 March 1923) * Henri, Hereditary Prince de Ligne (not married, but the father of) *# Maurice Bernhardt (22 December 1864 – ) * Ambroise Aristide Damala (15 January 1855 – 18 August 1889)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-03|title=Jacques Damala|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Damala&oldid=1320196285|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> ===Relations=== ==Questions and Notes== ==Bibliography== {{reflist}} 3n74qqz9oct64ixp44n2k2oz74lotk0 2816776 2816775 2026-06-24T23:17:40Z Scogdill 1331941 /* The Historical Theodora */ 2816776 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Overview== A. N. Wilson says,<blockquote>At Cimiez, in April 1897, the Queen found herself staying in the same hotel as the great Sarah Bernhardt: as venerated for her acting as she was celebrated for her rackety life of love. (Bertie, as the Queen was no doubt completely aware, had become obsessed by her when she did a London season in 1879, attending her [963–964] performances night after night; though she was only a flirtation, she was invited to his Coronation years later, and placed with Mrs Keppel, Jennie Churchill and the other mistresses in the chancel gallery nicknamed the ‘King’s Loose Box’. ...)<ref>Wilson, A. N. ''Victoria: A Life''. Penguin, 2014. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria/id828766078.</ref>{{rp|963–964 of 1204}}</blockquote> ==Also Known As== * Family name: Bernhard * Henriette-Rosine Bernard ==Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies== ===Acquaintances=== ===Friends=== * Charles de Morny, Duke of Morny (half-brother of Napoleon III)<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2025-12-07|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1326131063|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Charles Gounod<ref name=":0" /> * Madame Guérard, lived with Bernhardt and Maurice<ref name=":0" /> * George Sand ===Lovers=== * Henri, Hereditary Prince de Ligne (1864)<ref name=":0" /> ===Enemies=== [[File:Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_Sarah_Bernhardt_TCS_2_(Cleopatra)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891, Sarony, non-cropped version available]] [[File:Sarah_Bernhardt,_1891_LCCN2016852695.jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891]] ==Organizations and Social Networks== [[File:Sara_Bernhardt_-_Sarony,_N.Y._LCCN90716396.jpg|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891, can get better copy from LoC[[File:Sarah_Bernardt.JPG|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1893]]]] ==Timeline== '''1857''', Bernhardt found out that her father had died.<ref name=":0" /> '''1862''', Bernhardt's debut at the Comédie-Française.<ref name=":0" /> '''1862 August 31''', Bernhardt's debut at the Theatre Français.<ref name=":0" /> '''1864''', Bernhardt moved to the Gymnase theatre company, from which she was invited to recite 2 poems at a reception at the Tuileries Palace hosted by Empress Eugènie and Napoleon III, but she unwittingly read poetry by Victor Hugo, a critic of the monarchy, and the court walked out.<ref name=":0" /> '''1866 early''', Bernhardt read for Felix Duquesnel, director of the Théâtre de L'Odéon, nearly as prestigious to the Comédie-Française but with a less traditional repertoire.<ref name=":0" /> '''1884''', Bernhardt created the role of Theodora in the new Sardou play. '''1896''', Bernhardt<blockquote>used the new technology of lithography to produce vivid color posters, and in 1894, she hired Czech artist Alphonse Mucha to design the first of a series of posters for her play ''Gismonda''. He continued to make posters of her for six years.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-30|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1303400174|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>Mucha's lithographs were in the Art Nouveau style. His poster of Salammbô is shown at the very top of the section on [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Gwendolen Bourke's costume for the ball]]. [[File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec,_Sarah_Bernhardt_in_"Cleopatra"_(Sarah_Bernhardt_dans_"Cléopatre"),_1896,_NGA_42139.jpg|left|thumb|Toulouse-Lautrec's Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1896]] == Major Roles == === Cleopatra === Sarah Bernhardt performed Victorien Sardou's and Émile Moreau's 1890 ''Cléopâtra'' (with music by Xavier Leroux).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>She habitually took a personal interest in her costumes, sometimes doing research in museums and art galleries,<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-30|title=Sarah Bernhardt|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Bernhardt&oldid=1303400174|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> and in ''Cléopâtra'' she used her own pet garter snakes for the asp that kills her. She was photographed in the costume of the 1891 performances of ''Cleopatra'' (first 3 photographs on the right). Henri Toulouse-Lautrec drew her in the same role in 1896 (below left). ==== The Historical Cleopatra ==== Cleopatra lived from 70/69 B.C.E. to 10 or 12 August 30 B.C.E., the last of the Hellenistic pharaohs.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> But nonscholarly late 19th-century Britons, Europeans and Americans would have known her less as a historical figure than a cultural one, by her presence in the arts and in popular culture. About 6,000–7,000 references to Cleopatra appear per year in British newspapers between 1890 and 1891, so Cleopatra was present as a name referring generally to the powerful queen of antiquity, especially of Egypt, Rome and Greece. She was painted by the major painters of the late 19th century and appeared in plays, novels, operas, ballets and poems. She is rendered white almost universally by Europeans and especially Americans<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-20|title=Egyptomania in the United States|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptomania_in_the_United_States&oldid=1286505313|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> of whatever century. And beyond her presence as herself, ships were named after her, and she is implicated in depictions of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony as well as the "Egyptomania" of the time, including Giuseppe Verdi's popular 1871 ''Aida'',<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-13|title=Aida|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aida&oldid=1305615525|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which is set in "Old Kingdom" Egypt (that is, some undetermined time in the far past). Egypt was present in the imaginations of the Romantics and kept there by the Victorians, by the deciphering of hieroglyphics beginning with the Rosetta Stone in 1822,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-15|title=Rosetta Stone|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosetta_Stone&oldid=1305991621|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> by the presence of Egyptian artifacts in the British Museum, and by the widely discussed role in the 1870s of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, the Earl of Beaconsfield in the purchase of British control of the Suez Canal.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-26|title=Benjamin Disraeli|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Disraeli&oldid=1302642906|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Lillie Langtry as Cleopatra.jpg|alt=Old photo of a woman with her long hair down, dressed as a queen from the ancient world of Egypt|thumb|Lillie Langtry as Cleopatra, 1891]] Besides Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'', other plays, late-19th-century paintings or novels featuring Cleopatra would have been reviewed and advertised in contemporary periodicals. For example, Émile Moreau and Victorien Sardou's ''Cléopâtre'' was produced in 1890, starring [[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Bernhardt|Sarah Bernhardt]], who took the show on tour to the U.K. and U.S. Lillie Langtry also performed Cleopatra in Shakespeare's play and was photographed by society photographer W. & D. Downey (bottom right). H. Rider Haggard renamed his 1890 ''Harmachio'' in 1891 to ''Cleopatra: Being an Account of the Fall and Vengeance of '''Harmachis''''' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_(Haggard_novel)<nowiki>].</nowiki> * Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1875 Cleopatra,1883 The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra) * Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1896 Cleopatra on the Terraces of Philae [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Arthur_Bridgman_-_Cleopatra_on_the_Terraces_of_Philae.JPG<nowiki>])</nowiki> * Alexandre Cabanel (1887, ''Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_Testing_Poisons_on_Condemned_Prisoners<nowiki>])</nowiki> * John Collier (1890 ''The Death of Cleopatra'') * John William Waterhouse (1888 Cleopatra) * Richard Caton Woodville: ''Cleopatra'' ** ''The Death of Cleopatra'' (1889) for ''The Illustrated London News'' * and many more Although it is too late to be an influence on any costume at this ball, in 1898 George Grossmith, Jr., and Paul Rubens created the burlesque ''Great Caesar''.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> In 1893, ''The Queen'' advertised "the Cleopatra," a "charming evening cloak, in rich Bengaline Silk, lined Silk."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 9th edition of the ''Encylopædia Britannica'', the edition that would have been available at this time, has an article about Cleopatra that runs about one full column. It emphasizes her "remarkable charms of person": <blockquote>CLEOPATRA (''Κλεπάτρα''), the name of several Egyptian princesses of the house of the Ptolemies. The best known was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, born 69 <small>B</small>.<small>C</small>. Her father left her, at the age of seventeen, heir to his kingdom jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy, whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few years afterwards her brother, or rather her guardians, deprived her of all royal authority. She withdrew into Syria, and there made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. It was at this juncture that Julius Cæsar followed Pompey into Egypt, resolved to settle there, if possible, the existing dispute as to the throne. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra, which she was not slow in bringing to bear upon him, soon won him entirely to her side; and as Ptolemy and his advisers still refused to admit her to a share in the kingdom, Cæsar undertook a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger brother, to whom she was also contracted in marriage. Her relations with Cæsar were matter of public notoriety, and soon after his return to Rome she joined him there, in company with her boy-husband (of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison), but living openly with her Roman lover, somewhat to the scandal of his fellow-citizens. After Cæsar’s assassination, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at once to her native country. But subsequently, during the civil troubles at Rome, she took the part of Antony, on whom she is said to have already made some impression in her earlier years, when he was campaigning in Egypt. When he was in Cilicia, she made a purpose journey to visit him, sailing up the Cydnus in a gorgeously-decked galley, arrayed in all the attractive splendour which Eastern magnificence could bring in aid of her personal charms. Antony became from that time forth her infatuated slave, followed her to Egypt, and lived with her there for some time in the most profuse and wanton luxury. They called themselves “Osiris” and “Isis,” and claimed to be regarded as divinities. His marriage with Octavia broke this connection for a while, but it was soon renewed, and Cleopatra assisted him in his future campaigns both with money and supplies. This infatuation of his rival with a personage already so unpopular at Rome as Cleopatra, was taken advantage of by Octavianus Cæsar (Augustus), who declared war against her personally. In the famous seafight at Actium, between the fleets of Octavianus and Antony, Cleopatra, who had accompanied him into action with an Egyptian squadron, took to flight while the issue was yet doubtful, and though hotly pursued by the enemy succeeded in escaping to Alexandria, where she was soon joined by her devoted lover. When the cause of Antony was irretrievably ruined, and all her attempts to strengthen herself against the Roman conqueror by means of foreign alliances had failed, she made overtures of submission. Octavianus suggested to her, as a way to his favour, the assassination of his enemy Antony. She seems to have entertained the base proposal, — enticing him to join her in [Col. 1c-2a] a mausoleum which she had built, in order that “they might die together,” and where he fulfilled his part of the compact by committing suicide, in the belief that she had already done so. The charms which had succeeded so easily with Julius and with Antony failed to move the younger Cæsar, though he at once granted her an interview; and rather than submit to be carried by him as a prisoner to Rome, she put an end to her life — by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the common version of the story — in the thirty-ninth year of her age. With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Besides her remarkable charms of person, she had very considerable abilities, and unusual literary tastes. She is said to have been able to converse in seven languages. She had three children by Antony, and, as some say, a son, called Cæsarion, by Julius Cæsar.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-04|title=Cleopatra|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1304135144|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:Theodora - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy) - croped.jpg|alt=Photograph of an ancient mosaic showing woman with a halo and with attendants|left|thumb|Detail of icon of Theodora and attendants in the Basilica San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy]] [[File:Sarah Bernhardt as Theodora by Nadar.jpg|alt=Old photograph of a woman barring a door and acting like she's overhearing something|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt, 1884, Theodora]] === Theodora === [[File:Sarah Bernhardt as the Empress Theodora.jpg|alt=Old photograph of an actor seated on a throne|thumb|Sarah Bernhardt, seated as Theodora, 1884]] For Sardou's 1884 ''Theodora'', Bernhardt visited Ravenna and based her costumes for the title character on her sketches of the clothing of the icon in the mosaic murals there.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Sarah Bernhardt: Return to Paris, European tour, Fédora to Theodora (1881–1886)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Bernhardt#Return_to_Paris,_European_tour,_Fédora_to_Theodora_(1881–1886)|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> The 6th-century mosaic (left) shows Theodora, who has a halo. Her headdress is very elaborately bejeweled. Her cloak and underdress are not ornate like later the theatrical costumes based on it, but they both have a decorative panel at the hemline. The attendant to Theodora's left is wearing a drape with a pattern of circles. Later designers of costumes may have repeated the motif of circles and the panels at the hemlines. Two images of Bernhardt in costume show two different highly theatrical costumes from Sardou's play. In the first (above right), Bernhardt is wearing a distinctive belted tabard over an underdress. The tabard is decorated with a motif of appliquéd circles, and the underdress has a panel at the bottom of what may be faces in circles. The second costume (below right) shows Theodora as more regal and formal, but the motifs of appliquéd circles on the tabard and the panel at the hem of the underdress are repeated. ==== The Historical Theodora ==== The 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' has a substantial entry on her under her own name:<blockquote>THEODORA, the wife of the emperor J<small>USTINIAN</small> (''q''.''v''.), was born probably in Constantinople, though according to some in Cyprus, in the early years of the 6th century, and died in 547. We shall first give the usually received account of her life and character, and then proceed to inquire how far this account deserves to be accepted. According to Procopius, our chief, but by no means a trustworthy authority for her life, she was the daughter of Acacius, a bear-feeder of the amphitheatre at Constantinople to the Green Faction, and while still a child was sent on to the stage to earn her living in the performances called mimes. She had no gift for either music or dancing, but made herself notorious by the spirit and impudence of her acting in the rough farces, as one may call them, which delighted the crowd of the capital. Becoming a noted courtesan, she accompanied a certain Hecebolus to Pentapolis (in North Africa), of which he had been appointed governor, and, having quarrelled with him, betook herself first to Alexandria, and then back to Constantinople through the cities of Asia Minor. In Constantinople (where, according to a late but apparently not quite groundless story, she now endeavoured to support herself by spinning, and may therefore have been trying to reform her life) she attracted the notice of Justinian, then patrician, and, as the all-powerful nephew of the emperor Justin, practically ruler of the empire. He desired to marry her, but could not overcome the opposition of his aunt, the empress Euphemia. After her death (usually assigned to the year 523) the emperor yielded, and, as a law, dating from the time of Constantine, forbade the marriage of women who had followed the stage with senators, this law was repealed. Thereupon Justinian married Theodora, whom he had already caused to be raised to the patriciate. They were some time after (527) admitted by Justin to a share in the sovereignty; and, on his death four months later, Justinian and Theodora became sole rulers of the Roman world. He was then about forty-four years of age, and she some twenty years younger. Procopius relates in his unpublished history (Άνέκδοπα) many repulsive tales regarding Theodora’s earlier life, but his evident hatred of her, though she had been more than ten years dead when the ''Anecdota'' were written, and the extravagances which the book contains, oblige us to regard him as a very doubtful witness. Some confirmation of the reported opposition of the imperial family to the marriage has been found in the story regarding the conduct of Justinian’s own mother Vigilantia, which Nicholas Alemanni, the first editor of the ''Anecdota'', in his notes to that book, quotes from a certain “Life of Justinian” by Theophilus, to which he frequently refers, without saying where he found it. Since the article J<small>USTINIAN</small> (''q''.''v''.) was published, the present writer has discovered in Rome what is believed to be the only MS. of this so-called life of Justinian; and his examination of its contents, which he has lately published, makes him think it worthless as an authority. See article T<small>HEOPHILUS</small>. Theodora speedily acquired unbounded influence over her husband. He consulted her in everything, and allowed her to interfere directly, as and when she pleased, in the government of the empire. She had a right to interfere, for she was not merely his consort, but empress regnant, and as such entitled equally with himself to the exercise of all prerogatives. In the most terrible crisis of Justinian’s reign, the great Nika insurrection of 532, her courage and firmness in refusing to fly when the rebels were attacking the palace saved her husband’s crown, and no doubt strengthened her command over his mind. Officials took an oath of allegiance to her as well as to the emperor (''Nov''., viii.). She even corresponded with foreign ambassadors, and instructed Belisarius how to deal with the popes. Pro- [253–254] copius describes her as acting with harshness, seizing on trivial pretexts persons who had offended her, stripping some of their property, throwing others into dungeons, where they were cruelly tortured or kept for years without the knowledge of their friends. The city was full of her spies, who reported to her everything said against herself or the administration. She surrounded herself with ceremonious pomp, and required all who approached to abase themselves in a manner new even to that half-Oriental court. She was an incessant and tyrannical match-maker, forcing men to accept wives and women to accept husbands at her caprice. She constituted herself the protectress of faithless wives against outraged husbands, yet professed great zeal for the moral reformation of the city, enforcing severely the laws against vice, and immuring in a “house of repentance” on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus five hundred courtesans whom she had swept out of the streets of the capital. How much of all this is true we have no means of determining, for it rests on the sole word of Procopius. But there are slight indications in other writers that she had a reputation for severity. In the religious strife which distracted the empire Theodora took part with the Monophysites, and her coterie usually contained several leading prelates and monks of that party. As Justinian was a warm upholder of the decrees of Chalcedon, this difference of the royal pair excited much remark and indeed much suspicion. Many saw in it a design to penetrate the secrets of both ecelesiastical factions, and so to rule more securely. In other matters also the wife spoke and acted very differently from the husband; but their differences do not seem to have disturbed either his affection or his confidence. The maxim in Constantinople was that the empress was a stronger and a safer friend than the emperor; for, while he abandoned his favourites to her wrath, she stood by her protégés, and never failed to punish any one whose heedless tongue had assailed her character. Theodora bore to Justinian no son, but one daughter, — at least it would seem that her grandson, who is twice mentioned, was the offspring of a legitimate daughter, whose name, however, is not given. According to Procopius, she had before her marriage become the mother of a son, who when grown up returned from Arabia, revealed himself to her, and forthwith disappeared for ever; but this is a story to be received with distrust. That her behaviour as a wife was irreproachable may be gathered from the fact that Procopius mentions only one scandal affecting it, the case of Areobindus. Even he does not seem to believe this case, for, while referring to it as a mere rumour, the only proof he gives is that, suspecting Areobindus of some offence, she had torture applied to this supposed paramour. Her health was delicate, and, though she took all possible care of it, frequently quitting the capital for the seclusion of her villas on the Asiatic shore, she died comparatively young. Theodora was small in stature and rather pale, but with a graceful figure, beautiful features, and a piercing glance. There remains in the apse of the famous church of St Vitale at Ravenna a contemporaneous mosaic portrait of her, to which the artist, notwithstanding the stiffness of the material, has succeeded in giving some character. [The next paragraphs are printed in smaller font.] The above account is in substance that which historians of the last two centuries and a half have accepted and repeated regarding this famous empress. But it must be admitted to be open to serious doubts. Everything relating to the early career of Theodora, the faults of her girlhood, the charges of cruelty and insolence in her government of the empire, rest on the sole authority of the Anecdota of Procopius, — a book whose credit is shaken by its bitterness and extravagance. If we reject it, little is left against her, except of course that action in ecclesiastical affairs which excited the wrath of Baronius, who had denounced her before the ''Anecdota'' were published. In favour of the picture which Procopius gives of the empress it may be argued (1) that she certainly did interfere constantly and [Col. 1c–2a] arbitrarily in the administration of public affairs, and showed herself therein the kind of person who would be cruel and unscrupulous in her choice of means, and (2) that we gather from other writers an impression that she was harsh and tyrannical, as, for instance, from the references to her in the lives of the popes in the ''Liber Pontificalis'' (which used to pass under the name of Anastasius, the papal librarian). Her threat to the person whom she commanded to bring Vigilius to her was ‘‘nisi hoc feceris, per Viventem in sæcula excoriari te faciam.” Much of what we find in these lives is legendary, but they are some evidence of Theodora’s reputation. Again (3) the statute (''Cod''., v. 4, 23) which repeals the older law so far as relates to ''sceniæ mulieres'' is now generally attributed to Justin, and agrees with the statement of Procopius that an alteration of the law was made to legalize her marriage. There is therefore reason for holding that she was an actress, and, considering what the Byzantine stage was (as appears even by the statute in question), her life cannot have been irreproachable. Against the evidence of Procopius, with such confirmations as have been indicated, there is to be set the silence of other writers, contemporaries like Agathias and Evagrius, as well as such later historians as Theophanes, none of whom repeat the charges as to Theodora’s life before her marriage. To this consideration no great weight need be attached. It is difficult to establish any view of the controversy without a long and minute examination of the authorities, and in particular of the ''Anecdota''. But the most probable conclusions seem to be — (1) that the odious details which Procopius gives, and which Gibbon did not blush to copy, deserve no more weight than would be given nowadays to the malignant scandal of disappointed courtiers under a despotic government, where scandal is all the blacker because it is propagated in secret (see P<small>ROCOPIUS</small>); (2) that apparently she was an actress and a courtesan, and not improbably conspicuous in both those charaeters; and (3) that it is impossible to determine how far the specific charges of cruelty and oppression brought against her by Procopius deserve credence. We are not bound to accept them, for they are uncorroborated; yet the accounts of Justinian’s government given in the ''Anecdota'' agree in too many respects with what we know ''aliunde'' to enable us to reject them altogether; and it must be admitted that there is a certain internal consistency in the whole picture which the ''Anecdota'' present of the empress. About the beauty, the intellectual gifts, and the imperious will of Theodora there can be no doubt, for as to these all our authorities agree. She was evidently an extraordinary person, born to shine in any station of life. Her fortunes have employed many pens. Among the latest serious works dealing with them may be mentioned M. Antonin Débidour’s ''L’Impératrice Theodora: Etude Critique'', Paris, 1885, which endeavours to vindicate her from the aspersions of Procopius; and among more imaginative writings are Sir Henry Pottinger’s interesting romance ''Blue and Green'' (London, Hurst and Blackett, 1879), M. Rhangabé’s tragedy Θεοδωρα (Leipsic, 1884), and M. Sardou’s play ''Theodora'', produced in Paris in 1884. See also Dr F. Dahn’s ''Prokopios von Cäsarea'', 1865. (J. BR.)<ref>J. Br. [James Bryce]. "Theodora." ''Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Information''. Ed., Thomas Spencer Baynes, 9th ed. Vol. XXIII (Vol. 23): ''T to UPS''. pp. 253, Col. 2a – 254, Col. 2b. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%2023%20%28T-UPS%29%20193592732.23/page/254/mode/2up.</ref></blockquote>Edward Gibbons' ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' has a passage on Theodora, which would also have been easily available to the people who attended the Duchess of Devonshire's ball. It is part of his chapter on the "Reign of Justinian":<blockquote>Those who believe that the female mind is totally depraved by the loss of chastity, will eagerly listen to all the invectives of private envy, or popular resentment which have dissembled the virtues of Theodora, exaggerated her vices, and condemned with rigor the venal or voluntary sins of the youthful harlot. From a motive of shame, or contempt, she often declined the servile homage of the multitude, escaped from the odious light of the capital, and passed the greatest part of the year in the palaces and gardens which were pleasantly seated on the sea-coast of the Propontis and the Bosphorus. Her private hours were devoted to the prudent as well as grateful care of her beauty, the luxury of the bath and table, and the long slumber of the evening and the morning. Her secret apartments were occupied by the favorite women and eunuchs, whose interests and passions she indulged at the expense of justice; the most illustrious person ages of the state were crowded into a dark and sultry antechamber, and when at last, after tedious attendance, they were admitted to kiss the feet of Theodora, they experienced, as her humor might suggest, the silent arrogance of an empress, or the capricious levity of a comedian. Her rapacious avarice to accumulate an immense treasure, may be excused by the apprehension of her husband's death, which could leave no alternative between ruin and the throne; and fear as well as ambition might exasperate Theodora against two generals, who, during the malady of the emperor, had rashly declared that they were not disposed to acquiesce in the choice of the capital. But the reproach of cruelty, so repugnant even to her softer vices, has left an indelible stain on the memory of Theodora. Her numerous spies observed, and zealously reported, every action, or word, or look, injurious to their royal mistress. Whomsoever they accused were cast into her peculiar prisons, ... inaccessible to the inquiries of justice; and it was rumored, that the torture of the rack, or scourge, had been inflicted in the presence of the female tyrant, insensible to the voice of prayer or of pity. ... Some of these unhappy victims perished in deep, unwholesome dungeons, while others were permitted, after the loss of their limbs, their reason, or their fortunes, to appear in the world, the living monuments of [38–39] her vengeance, which was commonly extended to the children of those whom she had suspected or injured. The senator or bishop, whose death or exile Theodora had pronounced, was delivered to a trusty messenger, and his diligence was quickened by a menace from her own mouth. "If you fail in the execution of my commands, I swear by Him who liveth forever, that your skin shall be flayed from your body." ...<p> If the creed of Theodora had not been tainted with heresy, her exemplary devotion might have atoned, in the opinion of her contemporaries, for pride, avarice, and cruelty. But, if she employed her influence to assuage the intolerant fury of the emperor, the present age will allow some merit to her religion, and much indulgence to her speculative errors. ... The name of Theodora was introduced, with equal honor, in all the pious and charitable foundations of Justinian; and the most benevolent institution of his reign may be ascribed to the sympathy of the empress for her less fortunate sisters, who had been seduced or compelled to embrace the trade of prostitution. A palace, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, was converted into a stately and spacious monastery, and a liberal maintenance was assigned to five hundred women, who had been collected from the streets and brothels of Constantinople. In this safe and holy retreat, they were devoted to perpetual confinement; and the despair of some, who threw themselves headlong into the sea, was lost in the gratitude of the penitents, who had been delivered from sin and misery by their generous benefactress. ... The prudence of Theodora is celebrated by Justinian himself; and his laws are attributed to the sage counsels of his most reverend wife whom he had received as the gift of the Deity. ... Her courage was displayed amidst the tumult of the people and the terrors of the court. Her chastity, from the moment of her union with Justinian, is founded on the silence of her implacable enemies; and although the daughter of Acacius might be satiated with love, yet some applause is due to the firmness of a mind which could sacrifice pleasure and habit to the stronger sense either of duty or interest. The wishes and prayers of Theodora could never obtain the blessing of a lawful son, and she buried an infant daughter, the sole offspring of her marriage. ... Notwithstanding this disappointment, her dominion was permanent and absolute; she preserved, by art or merit, the affections of Justinian; and their seeming dissensions were always fatal to the courtiers who believed them to be sincere. Perhaps her health had been [39–40] impaired by the licentiousness of her youth; but it was always delicate, and she was directed by her physicians to use the Pythian warm baths. In this journey, the empress was followed by the Praetorian praefect, the great treasurer, several counts and patricians, and a splendid train of four thousand attendants: the highways were repaired at her approach; a palace was erected for her reception; and as she passed through Bithynia, she distributed liberal alms to the churches, the monasteries, and the hospitals, that they might implore Heaven for the restoration of her health. ... At length, in the twenty-fourth year of her marriage, and the twenty-second of her reign, she was consumed by a cancer; ... and the irreparable loss was deplored by her husband, who, in the room of a theatrical prostitute, might have selected the purest and most noble virgin of the East. [ellipsis points mark where footnote numbers were edited out]<ref>Gibbons, Edward. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. Vol. 4. The Ages Digital Library Collections. Albany, OR: Books for the Ages, 1997. Pp. 40–42. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/DeclineAndFallOfTheRomanEmpireVol.4ByEdwardGibbons/page/38/mode/2up.</ref></blockquote> == Demographics == * Nationality: French ===Residences=== ==Family== * Julie or Youle (Judith) Bernard<ref name=":0" /> * [father] *# Henriette-Rosine Bernard (22 October 1844 – 26 March 1923)<ref name=":0" /> * Sarah Bernhardt (Henriette-Rosine Bernard) (22 October 1844 – 26 March 1923) * Henri, Hereditary Prince de Ligne (not married, but the father of) *# Maurice Bernhardt (22 December 1864 – ) * Ambroise Aristide Damala (15 January 1855 – 18 August 1889)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-03|title=Jacques Damala|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Damala&oldid=1320196285|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> ===Relations=== ==Questions and Notes== ==Bibliography== {{reflist}} lav9wk91ms13qsb02d1yb0td3r9ijti 2 326765 2816690 2816510 2026-06-24T13:42:10Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* The 600-cell */ 2816690 wikitext text/x-wiki = Golden chords of the 120-cell = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}} <blockquote>Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.</blockquote> == Introduction == Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope. == Visualizing the 120-cell == {| class="wikitable floatright" width="400" |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell <small><math>\{5,3,3\}</math></small> performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; "Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]]."}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all. |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] <small><math>\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}</math></small>.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered. |} [[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells. The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}} Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all. Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex. == Compounds in the 120-cell == The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell). The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5² non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5² (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3² times 5² (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and 3³ times 5² (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}} So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are <math>\phi^6</math> as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside. The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell. == Thirty distinguished distances == The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides. {| class="wikitable" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" !rowspan=2|<math>c_t</math> !rowspan=2|arc !rowspan=2|<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|<math>\left\{p\right\}</math> !rowspan=2|<small><math>m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|Steinbach roots !colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell |- !colspan=5|unit-radius length <math>c_t</math> !colspan=2|unit-edge length <math>c_t/c_1</math><br>in 120-cell of radius <math>c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2</math> |- |<small><math>c_{1,1}</math></small> |<small><math>15.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.270091</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.072949}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>25.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{15\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.437016</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.190983}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{3,1}</math></small> |<small><math>36{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{10\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)</math></small> |<small><math>0.618034</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.381966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.28825</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>41.4{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.707107</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>2.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{5,1}</math></small> |<small><math>44.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.756934</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.572949}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.80252</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{6,1}</math></small> |<small><math>49.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.831254</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.690983}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.07768</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{7,1}</math></small> |<small><math>56.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.93913</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.881966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.47709</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>60{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>3.70246</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{9,1}</math></small> |<small><math>66.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.09132</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>4.04057</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{10,1}</math></small> |<small><math>69.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.14412</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>4.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{11,1}</math></small> |<small><math>72{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.17557</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.38197}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.3525</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>75.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.22474</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.53457</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{13,1}</math></small> |<small><math>81.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.30038</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.8146</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{14,1}</math></small> |<small><math>84.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.345</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>4.9798</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{15,1}</math></small> |<small><math>90.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.41421</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{16,1}</math></small> |<small><math>95.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.4802</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.48037</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{17,1}</math></small> |<small><math>98.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.51954</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>5.62605</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{18,1}</math></small> |<small><math>104.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.58114</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}</math></small> |<small><math>5.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{19,1}</math></small> |<small><math>108.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>5.9907</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{20,1}</math></small> |<small><math>110.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.64042</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>6.07359</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{21,1}</math></small> |<small><math>113.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.67601</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.20537</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{22,1}</math></small> |<small><math>120{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>1.73205</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{6} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.41285</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{23,1}</math></small> |<small><math>124.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.7658</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.11803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>6.53779</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{24,1}</math></small> |<small><math>130.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.81907</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.73503</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{25,1}</math></small> |<small><math>135.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.85123</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.42705}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^4</math></small> |<small><math>6.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{26,1}</math></small> |<small><math>138.6{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.87083</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{7} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.92667</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{27,1}</math></small> |<small><math>144{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>1.90211</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\phi +2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}</math></small> |<small><math>7.0425</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{28,1}</math></small> |<small><math>154.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.95167</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>7.22598</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{29,1}</math></small> |<small><math>164.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.98168</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.92705}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>7.33708</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{30,1}</math></small> |<small><math>180{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>2.</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>7.40492</math></small> |- |rowspan=4 colspan=6| |rowspan=4 colspan=4| <small><math>\phi</math></small> is the golden ratio:<br> <small><math>\phi ^2-\phi -1=0</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi</math></small>, and: <small><math>\phi+1=\phi^2</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2</math></small><br> <small><math>1/\phi</math></small> and <small><math>\phi</math></small> are the golden sections of <small><math>\sqrt{5}</math></small>:<br> <small><math>\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}</math></small> |colspan=2|<small><math>\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>1.618034</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>3.854102</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>2.854102</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)</math></small> |<small><math>2.854102</math></small> |} == The 16-cell 4-orthoplex == In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]]. A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613</math> The chord ratio <math>r_3=\sqrt{2}+1</math> is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414</math> Note that <math>r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1</math>. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three <math>r_3</math> chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first <math>r_3</math> chord the displacement is <math>\sqrt{2}+r_1</math>. Over the second <math>r_3</math> chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of <math>-r_1</math> . Over the third <math>r_3</math> chord it moves a distance of <math>-r_1</math>. If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius <math>1/\sqrt{2}</math>. [[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]] The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <small><math>\{3,3,4\}</math></small>. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron. The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each. The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell. The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges except opposite pairs. The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2</math> We will need a planar octagon with rigid <math>r_2</math> chords, rather than one with rigid <math>r_1</math> edges. The octagon's <math>r_2</math> chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal. Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length <math>r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}</math>, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each <math>r_i</math> chord makes <math>i</math> 45° turns. [[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell <small><math>\{3,3,4\}</math></small> performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]] [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements. The <math>r_1</math> chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by <math>r_2</math> chords. The <math>r_2</math> chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane. The <math>r_3</math> chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant <math>r_2</math> square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the <math>r_3</math> chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not <math>2\pi</math>, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''. The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of <math>r_3</math> chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° <math>r_3</math> chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four <math>r_3</math> chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over eight <math>r_3</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four <math>r_2</math> edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation. Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the <math>r_3</math> star polygon, which constructs <math>1/r_3</math>. == The 8-cell tesseract == The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension <math>n</math> is <math>\sqrt{n}</math>, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral. [[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract <small><math>\{4,3,3\}</math></small> performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]] The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <small><math>\{4,3,3\}</math></small>. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube. The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes. We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing. Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}} A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects. == The 24-cell == [[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]] In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes. The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <small><math>\{3,4,3\}</math></small>. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron. The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> [[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell <small><math>\{3,4,3\}</math></small> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]] The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four <math>\sqrt{3}</math> long diameters. The <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters. The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords: :<math>r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5</math> when <math>r_1=1</math>. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five <math>r_5</math> chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates <math>r_1=1/r_5</math>. The <math>r_1</math> and <math>r_5</math> chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. [[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are <math>\sqrt{2}</math> 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are <math>\sqrt{3}</math> distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]] [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small>]] We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} <small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> ]] We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its <math>r_{2}</math> edges, over <math>r_{5}=\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the <math>r_5</math> star polygon which constructs <math>1/r_5</math>. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° <math>r_5</math> chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> over <math>r_5</math> chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions. The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference <math>10\pi</math> over twelve <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation. == The 600-cell == [[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell <small><math>\{3,3,5\}</math></small> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]] The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <small><math>\{3,3,5\}</math></small>. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron. The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length <math>\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> instead of octahedra of edge length <math>\sqrt{1}</math>. It encloses the <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords. Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of <math>\phi^{-1}</math>, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center. In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes. The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords: :<math>r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209</math> :<math>r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416</math> :<math>r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813</math> :<math>r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338</math> :<math>r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486</math> :<math>r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Only the chord lengths <math>r_3</math>, <math>r_5</math>, <math>r_6</math>, <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, <math>r_9</math>, <math>r_{10}</math>, <math>r_{12}</math>, <math>r_{15}</math> occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>r_3</math>, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are: [[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]] :<math>r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short edge chord ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long isocline chord |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_0</math> |0° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{15}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0° |180° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_1</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14}=2{15/7} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{14}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |12° |168° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_2</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{13}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |24° |156° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_3</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{12}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |36° |144° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_4</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{11}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |48° |132° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_5</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Dodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{10}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |60° |120° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{6}</math> |72° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{9}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |72° |108° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{7}</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosidodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{8}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |84° |96° |} The list of 600-cell chords <math>r_{i}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon. Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>\phi^{-1}</math> is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>\sqrt{2}</math> is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>\sqrt{2}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance <math>\sqrt{2+\phi}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small>]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over <math>r_7</math> edge chords and <math>r_8</math> isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference <math>14\pi</math> with each <math>r_7</math> edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference <math>16\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference <math>16\pi</math> with each <math>r_8</math> isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference <math>16\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} <small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> ]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over <math>r_{4}=\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>r_{11}=\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord is the <math>\sqrt{3}</math> diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>22\pi</math> over <math>r_{11}</math> chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over <math>r_{3}</math> edges and <math>r_{12}</math> isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° <math>r_{12}</math> chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>4\pi</math> over five <math>r_{12}</math> chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions. The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over <math>r_{2}</math> edges and <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/13} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chord is the <math>\sqrt{3.618\sim}</math> diagonal of a great decagon. The vertices of the invariant great decagons of this rotation each make thirteen orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>26\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} == The 5-cell 4-simplex == {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="9" |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short chord ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long chord |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_0</math> |0° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{30}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_1</math> |15.5~° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14} |164.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{29}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.073~}} |{{radic|3.927~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.270~ |1.982~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_2</math> |25.2~° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |154.8~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{28}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.191~}} |{{radic|3.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.437~ |1.952~ |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_3</math> |36° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{27}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_4</math> |41.4~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |138.6~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{26}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.5}} |{{radic|3.5}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.707~ |1.871~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_5</math> |44.5~° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |135.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{25}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.573~}} |{{radic|3.427~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.757~ |1.851~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_6</math> |49.1~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |130.9~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{24}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.691~}} |{{radic|3.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.831~ |1.819~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_7</math> |56° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |124° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{23}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.882~}} |{{radic|3.118~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.939~ |1.766~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_8</math> |60° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{22}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_9</math> |66.1~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |113.9~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{21}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.191~}} |{{radic|2.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.091~ |1.676~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{10}</math> |69.8~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |110.2~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{20}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.309~}} |{{radic|2.691~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.144~ |1.640~ |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{11}</math> |72° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{19}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: palegreen; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{12}</math> |75.5~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |104.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{18}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1.5}} |{{radic|2.5}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1.224~ |1.581~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{13}</math> |81.1~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |98.9~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{17}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.691~}} |{{radic|2.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.300~ |1.520~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{14}</math> |84.5~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |95.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{16}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.809~}} |{{radic|2.191~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.345~ |1.480~ |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{15}</math> |90° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} |90° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{15}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |} The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] <math>c_{t}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>c_1</math> is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>c_{15}</math> is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>c_{15}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance <math>c_{29}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell. ... {{Clear}} == Finally the 120-cell == The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <small><math>\{5,3,3\}</math></small>. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron. The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>c_1</math>, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure. ... {{Clear}} == Conclusions == Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.] The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact. == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == Notes == {{Notelist}} == Citations == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson & Sazdanovich|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff & Adamson|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }} {{Refend}} tsktmu2j30zv36mex9ecwdx09hez54k 2816722 2816690 2026-06-24T15:04:45Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* The 600-cell */ 2816722 wikitext text/x-wiki = Golden chords of the 120-cell = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}} <blockquote>Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.</blockquote> == Introduction == Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope. == Visualizing the 120-cell == {| class="wikitable floatright" width="400" |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell <small><math>\{5,3,3\}</math></small> performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; "Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]]."}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all. |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] <small><math>\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}</math></small>.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered. |} [[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells. The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}} Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all. Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex. == Compounds in the 120-cell == The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell). The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5² non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5² (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3² times 5² (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and 3³ times 5² (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}} So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are <math>\phi^6</math> as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside. The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell. == Thirty distinguished distances == The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides. {| class="wikitable" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" !rowspan=2|<math>c_t</math> !rowspan=2|arc !rowspan=2|<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|<math>\left\{p\right\}</math> !rowspan=2|<small><math>m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|Steinbach roots !colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell |- !colspan=5|unit-radius length <math>c_t</math> !colspan=2|unit-edge length <math>c_t/c_1</math><br>in 120-cell of radius <math>c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2</math> |- |<small><math>c_{1,1}</math></small> |<small><math>15.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.270091</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.072949}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>25.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{15\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.437016</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.190983}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{3,1}</math></small> |<small><math>36{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{10\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)</math></small> |<small><math>0.618034</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.381966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.28825</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>41.4{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.707107</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>2.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{5,1}</math></small> |<small><math>44.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.756934</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.572949}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.80252</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{6,1}</math></small> |<small><math>49.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.831254</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.690983}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.07768</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{7,1}</math></small> |<small><math>56.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.93913</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.881966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.47709</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>60{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>3.70246</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{9,1}</math></small> |<small><math>66.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.09132</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>4.04057</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{10,1}</math></small> |<small><math>69.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.14412</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>4.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{11,1}</math></small> |<small><math>72{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.17557</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.38197}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.3525</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>75.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.22474</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.53457</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{13,1}</math></small> |<small><math>81.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.30038</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.8146</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{14,1}</math></small> |<small><math>84.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.345</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>4.9798</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{15,1}</math></small> |<small><math>90.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.41421</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{16,1}</math></small> |<small><math>95.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.4802</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.48037</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{17,1}</math></small> |<small><math>98.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.51954</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>5.62605</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{18,1}</math></small> |<small><math>104.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.58114</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}</math></small> |<small><math>5.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{19,1}</math></small> |<small><math>108.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>5.9907</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{20,1}</math></small> |<small><math>110.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.64042</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>6.07359</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{21,1}</math></small> |<small><math>113.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.67601</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.20537</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{22,1}</math></small> |<small><math>120{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>1.73205</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{6} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.41285</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{23,1}</math></small> |<small><math>124.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.7658</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.11803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>6.53779</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{24,1}</math></small> |<small><math>130.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.81907</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.73503</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{25,1}</math></small> |<small><math>135.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.85123</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.42705}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^4</math></small> |<small><math>6.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{26,1}</math></small> |<small><math>138.6{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.87083</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{7} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.92667</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{27,1}</math></small> |<small><math>144{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>1.90211</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\phi +2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}</math></small> |<small><math>7.0425</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{28,1}</math></small> |<small><math>154.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.95167</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>7.22598</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{29,1}</math></small> |<small><math>164.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.98168</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.92705}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>7.33708</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{30,1}</math></small> |<small><math>180{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>2.</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>7.40492</math></small> |- |rowspan=4 colspan=6| |rowspan=4 colspan=4| <small><math>\phi</math></small> is the golden ratio:<br> <small><math>\phi ^2-\phi -1=0</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi</math></small>, and: <small><math>\phi+1=\phi^2</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2</math></small><br> <small><math>1/\phi</math></small> and <small><math>\phi</math></small> are the golden sections of <small><math>\sqrt{5}</math></small>:<br> <small><math>\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}</math></small> |colspan=2|<small><math>\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>1.618034</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>3.854102</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>2.854102</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)</math></small> |<small><math>2.854102</math></small> |} == The 16-cell 4-orthoplex == In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]]. A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613</math> The chord ratio <math>r_3=\sqrt{2}+1</math> is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414</math> Note that <math>r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1</math>. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three <math>r_3</math> chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first <math>r_3</math> chord the displacement is <math>\sqrt{2}+r_1</math>. Over the second <math>r_3</math> chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of <math>-r_1</math> . Over the third <math>r_3</math> chord it moves a distance of <math>-r_1</math>. If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius <math>1/\sqrt{2}</math>. [[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]] The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <small><math>\{3,3,4\}</math></small>. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron. The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each. The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell. The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges except opposite pairs. The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2</math> We will need a planar octagon with rigid <math>r_2</math> chords, rather than one with rigid <math>r_1</math> edges. The octagon's <math>r_2</math> chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal. Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length <math>r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}</math>, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each <math>r_i</math> chord makes <math>i</math> 45° turns. [[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell <small><math>\{3,3,4\}</math></small> performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]] [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements. The <math>r_1</math> chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by <math>r_2</math> chords. The <math>r_2</math> chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane. The <math>r_3</math> chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant <math>r_2</math> square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the <math>r_3</math> chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not <math>2\pi</math>, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''. The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of <math>r_3</math> chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° <math>r_3</math> chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four <math>r_3</math> chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over eight <math>r_3</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four <math>r_2</math> edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation. Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the <math>r_3</math> star polygon, which constructs <math>1/r_3</math>. == The 8-cell tesseract == The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension <math>n</math> is <math>\sqrt{n}</math>, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral. [[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract <small><math>\{4,3,3\}</math></small> performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]] The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <small><math>\{4,3,3\}</math></small>. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube. The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes. We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing. Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}} A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects. == The 24-cell == [[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]] In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes. The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <small><math>\{3,4,3\}</math></small>. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron. The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> [[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell <small><math>\{3,4,3\}</math></small> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]] The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four <math>\sqrt{3}</math> long diameters. The <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters. The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords: :<math>r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5</math> when <math>r_1=1</math>. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five <math>r_5</math> chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates <math>r_1=1/r_5</math>. The <math>r_1</math> and <math>r_5</math> chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. [[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are <math>\sqrt{2}</math> 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are <math>\sqrt{3}</math> distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]] [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small>]] We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} <small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> ]] We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its <math>r_{2}</math> edges, over <math>r_{5}=\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the <math>r_5</math> star polygon which constructs <math>1/r_5</math>. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° <math>r_5</math> chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> over <math>r_5</math> chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions. The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference <math>10\pi</math> over twelve <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation. == The 600-cell == [[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell <small><math>\{3,3,5\}</math></small> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]] The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <small><math>\{3,3,5\}</math></small>. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron. The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length <math>\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> instead of octahedra of edge length <math>\sqrt{1}</math>. It encloses the <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords. Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of <math>\phi^{-1}</math>, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center. In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes. The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords: :<math>r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209</math> :<math>r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416</math> :<math>r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813</math> :<math>r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338</math> :<math>r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486</math> :<math>r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Only the chord lengths <math>r_3</math>, <math>r_5</math>, <math>r_6</math>, <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, <math>r_9</math>, <math>r_{10}</math>, <math>r_{12}</math>, <math>r_{15}</math> occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>r_3</math>, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are: [[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]] :<math>r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short edge chord ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long isocline chord |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_0</math> |0° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{15}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0° |180° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_1</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14}=2{15/7} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{14}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |12° |168° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_2</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{13}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |24° |156° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_3</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{12}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |36° |144° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_4</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{11}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |48° |132° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_5</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Dodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{10}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |60° |120° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{6}</math> |72° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{9}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |72° |108° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{7}</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosidodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{8}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |84° |96° |} The list of 600-cell chords <math>r_{i}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon. Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>\phi^{-1}</math> is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>\sqrt{2}</math> is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>\sqrt{2}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance <math>\sqrt{2+\phi}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small>]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over <math>r_7</math> edge chords and <math>r_8</math> isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference <math>14\pi</math> with each <math>r_7</math> edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference <math>16\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference <math>16\pi</math> with each <math>r_8</math> isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference <math>16\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} <small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> ]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over <math>r_{4}=\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>r_{11}=\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord is the <math>\sqrt{3}</math> diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>22\pi</math> over <math>r_{11}</math> chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° <math>r_{3}</math> edges, over 144° <math>r_{12}</math> isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each <math>r_{12}</math> chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>4\pi</math> over five <math>r_{12}</math> chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° <math>r_{2}</math> edges, over 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>26\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} == The 5-cell 4-simplex == {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="9" |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short chord ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long chord |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_0</math> |0° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{30}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_1</math> |15.5~° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14} |164.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{29}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.073~}} |{{radic|3.927~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.270~ |1.982~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_2</math> |25.2~° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |154.8~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{28}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.191~}} |{{radic|3.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.437~ |1.952~ |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_3</math> |36° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{27}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_4</math> |41.4~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |138.6~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{26}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.5}} |{{radic|3.5}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.707~ |1.871~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_5</math> |44.5~° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |135.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{25}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.573~}} |{{radic|3.427~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.757~ |1.851~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_6</math> |49.1~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |130.9~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{24}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.691~}} |{{radic|3.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.831~ |1.819~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_7</math> |56° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |124° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{23}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.882~}} |{{radic|3.118~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.939~ |1.766~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_8</math> |60° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{22}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_9</math> |66.1~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |113.9~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{21}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.191~}} |{{radic|2.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.091~ |1.676~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{10}</math> |69.8~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |110.2~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{20}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.309~}} |{{radic|2.691~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.144~ |1.640~ |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{11}</math> |72° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{19}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: palegreen; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{12}</math> |75.5~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |104.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{18}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1.5}} |{{radic|2.5}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1.224~ |1.581~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{13}</math> |81.1~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |98.9~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{17}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.691~}} |{{radic|2.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.300~ |1.520~ |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{14}</math> |84.5~° | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" | |95.5~° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{16}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.809~}} |{{radic|2.191~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.345~ |1.480~ |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{15}</math> |90° | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="3" | | rowspan="3" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} |90° | rowspan="3" |<math>c_{15}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |} The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] <math>c_{t}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>c_1</math> is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>c_{15}</math> is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>c_{15}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance <math>c_{29}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell. ... {{Clear}} == Finally the 120-cell == The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <small><math>\{5,3,3\}</math></small>. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron. The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>c_1</math>, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure. ... {{Clear}} == Conclusions == Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.] The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact. == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == Notes == {{Notelist}} == Citations == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson & Sazdanovich|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff & Adamson|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }} {{Refend}} e7wy4y8d5dauvvjz31tw4efsqh4pekk 0 327557 2816784 2815034 2026-06-25T01:01:09Z DavidMCEddy 218607 /* Introduction */ link > Industrial Revolution 2816784 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD, GBR, USA, SGP).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1348–1807, Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, and Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007.</ref>'']] :''I am entitled to my [[Wiktionary:cockamamie|cockamamie]] ideas, and you are entitled to yours.''<ref>Humor is important but must be offered in a way that does not offend others. If others are offended, they may be less interested in dialogue. The term "cockamamie" is used here, hoping that this style of [[w:Self-deprecation|self-deprecation]] might be more inviting for dialogue.</ref> :This book invites you to improve your understanding of the role of the media in society and help you be more effective in talking with others and building consensus for action on the issues that most concern you. You are also invited to help improve this chapter and book. ==Introduction== Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) suggest that the stability of poverty and the [[w:Malthusianism|Malthusian trap]] in hierarchical societies ''prior'' to the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] was enforced by "societies of orders" consisting of those who (1) fought, (2) prayed, and (3) worked. Those who prayed convinced those who worked to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced so those who prayed and fought could live in leisure and opulence. This seems to describe the construction of the pyramids in Egypt and the cathedrals, castles and manor homes that dot Europe today.<ref>Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4).</ref> During the reign of [[w:James VI and I|King James of the King James bible]] pamphlets and newspapers began to compete with the church for helping peasants understand their role in society. That contributed to the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651) during which James' son, [[w: Charles I of England|Charles I]], was decapitated for abuse of power. The new government allowed enough commoners to become entrepreneurs that it increased the rate of economic growth visible in Figure 1. The number of independent media organizations per million population continued to grow, especially in the US where they were subsidized by the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792, [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John|until the mid nineteenth century]], when high-speed rotary presses substantially reduced the per copy cost of printing while increasing the cost of starting a newspaper.<ref>John (1995); John and Silberstein-Loeb (2015).</ref> That contributed to the expansion of voting rights, in the US officially to all adults by 1920. During the [[w:Great Depression|Great Depression]] with over 20 percent of the US workforce unemployed, conservative arguments that blamed the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers. That helped US President [[w:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin Roosevelt]] get the political support needed for his [[w:New Deal|New Deal]] program and [[The Media, the Great Depression, and our future|wage and price controls that enabled unprecedented economic growth]] during [[w:World War II|World War II]] by dramatically limiting price gouging that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth during previous major wars in US history. However, the consolidation of ownership of the major media since World War II limited the increases in inequality and then reversed them starting around the time that [[w:Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]] became president of the US in 1981.<ref>Acemoglu and Johnson (2023).</ref> During the [[w:Great Recession|Great Recession]] (2007-2009) Fox featured "experts" who insisted that Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal made the Great Depression ''worse'', not better. That editorial distortion helped prevent the US Congress from protecting the victims of [[w:Stated income loan|liar loans]]. But the money had to be injected back into the economy, so the US Congress funded bonuses of over a million dollars each to over 5,000 finance industry leaders, some of whom should have been in prison, according to Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, ch. 3), who shared the 2024 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:James A. Robinson|James A. Robinson]]. A major contributor to the Great Recession has reportedly been the success of the finance industry in getting sufficient control of the major media that they have been able to dramatically reduce financial regulation codified in the [[w:Glass–Steagall legislation|Glass–Steagall legislation]] of 1933 and block other reforms like a [[w:Tobin tax|Tobin tax]] to reduce market swings from extremely short term trading, an idea for which [[w:James Tobin|James Tobin]] won the [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|1981 Nobel memorial prize in economics]]. You, dear reader, are invited to offer contrary evidence or questions regarding the evidence presented here. This chapter identifies the leading countries in [[w:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita for each year]] in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]], which collates [[w:Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita and population estimates for years 1 [[w:Common Era|CE]] to the present from all credible sources the project team has found. The MaddisonData package for R makes these data available as an R data object with companion functions to facilitate computing the leaders for each year with optional exclusions to facilitate identifying the technology leaders and with a function ggplotPath to make it relatively easy to plot and annotate the image as desired.<ref>Graves (2025).</ref> The analysis then narrows the focus to apparent technology leaders since 1349, when the data identify Holland as the leader. This analysis identifies 11 different countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year. However, only 5 lead for more than 10 years: Holland (NLD), England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom (GBR), Australia (AUS), the United States (USA), and Singapore (SGP).<ref>The population of [[w:Singapore|Singapore]] is roughly 6 million. If you think that's too small to be included in this analysis, you can either ignore it or, better, repeat this analysis without it. A tutorial on how to do that using free and open-source software is available in [[Most productive countries since 1349#Appendix. Companion R Markdown vignette|an R Markdown vignette]] supplied as an appendix to the Wikiversity article on "[[Most productive countries since 1349]]".</ref> Australia led for only 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891 as the US was overtaking the UK as the technology leader. A plot of the leaders is then made without Australia, because its inclusion would seem to add more complexity than clarity to the message. That display is a [[w:Semi-log|semilog]] plot, because it makes a constant percentage increase look like a straight line. The resulting plot of GDP per capita suggests the Industrial Revolution began in England around 1649 when King Charles I was beheaded. == World leaders in GDP per capita == Table 1 lists all the countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year in MaddisonData. {| class="wikitable" |+ ''Table 1. all the countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year in the MaddisonData.'' |- ! rowspan=2 | country !! rowspan=2 | ISO !! colspan=2 | year !! rowspan=2 | n years !! rowspan=2 | percent of years |- ! begin !! end |- | [[w:Ancient Rome|Italy (ancient Rome)]] | ITA || style="text-align:right | 1 || 1501 || style="text-align:right | 3 || style="text-align:right | 0.2% |- | [[w:Iraq|Iraq]] || IRQ || style="text-align:right | 730 || 1000 || style="text-align:right | 271 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:China|China]] || CHN || style="text-align:right | 1090 || 1150 || style="text-align:right | 61 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:England|England]] / [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]] / [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || GBR || style="text-align:right | 1252 || 1898 || style="text-align:right | 91 || style="text-align:right | 14% |- | [[w:France|France]] || FRA || style="text-align:right | 1276 || 1374 || style="text-align:right | 19 || style="text-align:right | 19% |- | [[w:Spain|Spain]] || ESP || style="text-align:right | 1278 || 1348 || style="text-align:right | 50 || style="text-align:right | 70% |- | [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] || SWE || style="text-align:right | 1304 || 1509 || style="text-align:right | 13 || style="text-align:right | 6% |- | [[w:Holland|Holland]] / [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] || NLD || style="text-align:right | 1349 || 1807 || style="text-align:right | 447 || style="text-align:right | 97% |- | [[w:Belgium|Belgium]] || BEL || style="text-align:right | 1500 || 1500 || style="text-align:right | 1 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:Australia|Australia]] || AUS || style="text-align:right | 1853 || 1891 || style="text-align:right | 17 || style="text-align:right | 44% |- | [[w:New Zealand|New Zealand]] || NZL || style="text-align:right | 1873 || 1874 || style="text-align:right | 2 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:United States|United States]] || USA || style="text-align:right | 1882 || 1990 || style="text-align:right | 58 || style="text-align:right | 53% |- | [[w:Switzerland|Switzerland]] || CHE || style="text-align:right | 1931 || 1934 || style="text-align:right | 4 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:Qatar|Qatar]] || QAT || style="text-align:right | 1950 || 2022 || style="text-align:right | 45 || style="text-align:right | 62% |- | [[w:Kuwait|Kuwait]] || KWT || style="text-align:right | 1953 || 1957 || style="text-align:right | 5 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- |[[w:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] || ARE || style="text-align:right | 1965 || 1984 || style="text-align:right | 5 || style="text-align:right | 25% |- | [[w:Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] || LUX || style="text-align:right | 1991 || 1995 || style="text-align:right | 5 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:Norway|Norway]] || NOR || style="text-align:right | 1996 || 2002 || style="text-align:right | 7 || style="text-align:right | 100% |} For simplicity, we focus on the data since 1349, when Holland had the highest GDP per capita, omitting Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), United Arab Emirates (ARE), and Norway (NOR), whose wealth may be more due to petroleum than to broad technology leadership. We also delete Luxenbourg (LUX), whose population is under a million and therefore may be too small to use for general conclusions about technology leadership. Table 2 is similar to Table 1 with these adjustments. {| class="wikitable" |+ ''Table 2. Highest GDP per capita among broad-based economies since 1349.'' |- ! rowspan=2 | country !! rowspan=2 | ISO !! colspan=2 | year !! rowspan=2 | n years !! rowspan=2 | percent of years |- ! begin !! end |- | [[w:Holland|Holland]] / [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] || NLD || 1349 || 1807 || style="text-align:right | 447 || style="text-align:right | 97% |- | [[w:France|France]] || FRA || 1357 || 1374 || style="text-align:right | 7 || style="text-align:right | 39% |- | [[w:Italy|Italy]] || ITA || 1451 || 1501 || style="text-align:right | 2 || style="text-align:right | 4% |- | [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] || SWE || 1468 || 1509 || style="text-align:right | 2 || style="text-align:right | 5% |- | [[w:Belgium|Belgium]] || BEL || 1500 || 1500 || style="text-align:right | 1 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:England|England]] / [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]] / [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || GBR || 1808 || 1898 || style="text-align:right | 67 || style="text-align:right | 74% |- | [[w:Australia|Australia]] || AUS || 1853 || 1891 || style="text-align:right | 17 || style="text-align:right | 44% |- | [[w:New Zealand|New Zealand]] || NZL || 1873 || 1874 || style="text-align:right | 2 || style="text-align:right | 100% |- | [[w:United States|United States]] || USA || 1882 || 2005 || style="text-align:right | 107 || style="text-align:right | 86% |- | [[w:Switzerland|Switzerland]] || CHE || 1931 || 2009 || style="text-align:right | 9 || style="text-align:right | 11% |- | [[w:Singapore|Singapore]] || SGP || 2010 || 2022 || style="text-align:right | 13 || style="text-align:right | 100% |} Singapore (SGP) has replaced Norway as the current leader, according to the Maddison project data. The Wikipedia article on "[[w:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]]"<ref>accessed 2025-01-01</ref> notes that data from the US [[w:Central Intelligence Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]] report GDP per capita numbers for [[w:Monaco| Monaco]] (MCO) and [[w:Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]] (LIE) higher than for Singapore and Norway. However, they are tiny countries with populations roughly 40,000 each and are not included in MaddisonData. [[w:Holland|Holland]] (NLD) was the leader for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, according to MaddisonData. Then between 1807 and 1808, GDP per capita for NLD fell by 32 percent -- almost a third. That change can be attributed at least in part to a change in the definition of "NLD": Up to 1807, NLD represented Holland, per van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012). Beginning in 1808, the data are for the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]], per Smits et al. (2000), of which Holland is only part. Those years were also during the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]], and the Netherlands were part of France for part of that period. To understand this drop better, we would need to consult experts on that history. After that change, Holland / the Netherlands was replaced as the leader in GDP per capita by England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom (GBR), which led for 74 percent of the 91 years between 1808 and 1898. Then the US led for 84 percent of the years between 1882 and 1990 with Australia (AUS), New Zealand (NZL) and Switzerland (CHE) leading for the remaining 16 percent of those years. Luxembourg (LUX) led between 1991 and 2008, then Switzerland (CHE) led for 2009, then Singapore (SGP) between 2010 and 2022. The next section discusses a plot of the data for NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP. Others countries are omitted, because their leadership was so short, according to these data, that including them might add more complexity than information and make it harder to understand the big picture. == Plot broad-based leaders == Figure 1 is a [[w:Semi-log|semilog]] plot of GDP per capita for NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP between 1349 and 2022. A semilog plot like this makes a constant percentage increase appear as a straight line. Annotations document some of the potentially most important events during this period: * The orange line represents Holland through 1807 and the Netherlands starting in 1808. * The English Civil War (1642-1652), during which King Charles I was decapitated (1649). * The War of 1912 (1812-1815). * The American Civil War (1861-1865). * [[w:World War I|WW1]] (1914-1918). * The presidency of Herbert Hoover (1929-1933). * The presidency of Franklin Roosevelt (1933-1945). * [[w:World War II|WW2]] (1939-1945). * The presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989). * The first presidency of Donald Trump (2017-2021). * The presidency of Joe Biden (2021-2025). The orange NLD line includes a drop of 32 percent between 1807 and 1808 as the data changed from representing only Holland to representing the Netherlands, as mentioned above. A key feature of a semilog plot is that a constant percentage increase appears as a straight line with the slope being proportional to the rate of growth. A fairly obvious feature of Figure 1 is that GDP per capita started increasing for England very close to 1649, which King Charles I lost his head. England combined with Scotland to become Great Britain by the [[w:Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union of 1707]] during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Ann]], which was accompanied by economic turbulence visible in Figure 1. After she died, the economy began growing again but at a slower rate. Great Britain merged with Ireland by the [[w:Acts of Union 1800|Acts of Union of 1800]] to become the United Kingdom (UK) during the reign of George III. The creation of the UK was quickly followed by the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (1803-1815), which included the [[w:War of 1812|War of 1812]], which is marked on this plot. Those wars were followed by a brief decline in the UK GDP per capita, but it quickly started growing again at a faster rate. Both World Wars had negative impacts on the UK economy, visible in Figure 1. GDP per capita for the US started well below that of the UK, to the extent that the Maddison data are accurate, but grew faster and overtook the UK between 1882 and 1898, according to Table 2 above. The most spectacular features in Figure 1 are the unprecedented decline of the US economy during the administration of Herbert Hoover followed an even more unprecedented increase during the administration of FDR. The rate of growth in GDP per capita in the US is visibly slowing before Singapore takes the lead at the beginning of the Great Recession. [[w:Thomas Piketty|Thomas Piketty]], the world's leading expert on inequality, has attributed that slowing of the US economy to the increase in inequality since Reagan became US president in 1981, documented in Figures 6 and 7 of the next chapter of this book on, "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]". That chapter includes a section on the "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future#Role of the media|Role of the media]]", which cites research suggesting that both the increase in inequality and the slowing of the rate of economic growth can be attributed to the increased concentration of ownership of the major media including for-profit social media, which make money increasing political polarization and violence. == Caveat == Lindert and Williamson insist that Maddison's data are deficient, at least regarding the relative position of the 13 colonies that became the US: {{quote| American world leadership in income per person has waxed and waned for centuries. Before the twentieth century, the period in which Americans most clearly led Britain and all of western Europe in purchasing power per capita was during colonial times—that is, when North Americans were still British. They were already ahead by the late seventeenth century. America lost that lead in the Revolutionary War and the Articles of Confederation years, gained it back by 1860, lost most of it again in the Civil War decade, gained it back once more by 1900, and briefly lost it again in the Great Depression of the 1930s. ''Angus Maddison’s claim that American income per capita did not catch up to that of Britain until the start of the twentieth century seems to be off the mark by at least two centuries.'' Over the whole span of over 360 years since the mid-seventeenth century, America’s income advantage over Britain has not increased and may have decreased slightly. The only historical moment in which the United States soared far ahead of the rest of the world in average income came at the end of World War II. Since then, western Europe and Japan have been growing faster than the United States in terms of incomes per person. (emphasis added.)<ref>Lindert and Williamson (2016, pp. 8-9).</ref>}} This challenge to the numbers in the current analysis is vital for understanding the impact of armed conflict on the economy but may be irrelevant to the main point of this book, that media play a major role in helping humans understand what they should do to advance their interests. == Exercise == Share with others your thoughts on the issues raised in this discussion and summarize those discussions on the "Discuss" page associated with this chapter. Focus especially on how you managed your emotions and your relationships with the humans with whom you spoke as well as the strengths and weaknesses in the content of this chapter, challenges that should be addressed, and suggestions for improvement. == See also == * [[Most productive countries since 1349]] * [[The Media, the Great Depression, and our future]] == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * [[d: Q125292212|Daron Acemoğlu and Simon Johnson (2023) ''Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity'' (PublicAffairs)]]. * [[d:Q126723821|Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41]]. * [[d:Q57945943|S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)]]. * [[d:Q137660377|Susan B. Carter, S. S. Gartner, M. R. Haineset (2006) ''Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Time to the Present'' (Cambridge University Press)]]. * [[d:Q137660514|Spencer Graves (2025-11-25) "MaddisonData: Maddison Project Data" software available from the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) and GitHub]]. * [[d:Q54641943|Richard R. John (1995) ''Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse'' (Harvard University Press)]]. * [[d:Q131468166|Richard R. John; Jonathan Silberstein-Loeb, eds. (2015) ''Making News: The Political Economy of Journalism in Britain and America from the Glorious Revolution to the Internet'' (Oxford University Press)]]. * [[d:Q137669937|John J. McCusker (2006) "Colonial Statistics", Carter et al. (2006, V-671)]]. * [[d:Q135527962|Reece Peck (2016) "Usurping the usable past: How Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession", ''Journalism'', 18(6)]]. * [[d:Q55878109|W. Scheidel and S. J. Friesen (2009) "The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire", ''Journal of Roman Studies'', 99, pp. 61–91]]. * [[d:Q137669960|J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)]]. * [[d:Q137669987|I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing) * [[d: Q137670038|R. Sutch (2006). National Income and Product. Carter et al. (2006, III-23-25)]]. * [[d: Q137670058|J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30]]. [[Category:Media literacy]] [[Category:Communication]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Law]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Media Literacy and You]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 5rdwt10qengsg6chtafwq5v5pchfssh 2 328534 2816760 2799251 2026-06-24T18:47:38Z User73452 3060198 User73452 moved page [[Reality drift]] to [[User:73452/Archive/Reality drift]]: Archiving early draft; moving out of main namespace 2799251 wikitext text/x-wiki A learning resource exploring a systems-level concept describing gradual misalignment in modern environments. Reality Drift is a proposed concept describing how systems can continue to function while gradually losing alignment with real-world conditions, feedback, or underlying objectives. == Overview == The concept is used to describe situations where structures such as institutions, technologies, or information systems continue to function and produce outputs, but become increasingly disconnected from the realities they are intended to represent or respond to. Reality Drift can emerge in environments where: * performance is evaluated through indirect measures or proxies * feedback loops are delayed, filtered, or distorted * systems are optimized for internal consistency rather than external accuracy == Mechanisms == Several processes are commonly associated with this phenomenon: * '''Proxy optimization''' – when measurable indicators replace the original objective * '''Loss of feedback''' – when systems are no longer corrected by real-world outcomes * '''Abstraction layers''' – when increasing mediation distances systems from direct reality * '''Coherence bias''' – when outputs that appear structured or consistent are treated as accurate == Examples == Examples where similar patterns have been observed include: * organizational performance metrics that improve while underlying outcomes stagnate * algorithmic systems producing fluent but inaccurate outputs * media environments that prioritize engagement over accurate representation == Related concepts == * [[Goodhart's law]] * [[Information overload]] * [[Attention economy]] * [[Complex systems]] == Context == This concept draws on ideas related to: * systems theory * information theory * cognitive science a0202inbwm5zqutz3pb3yqkbt39ulfr 5 330057 2816785 2814676 2026-06-25T01:40:30Z Codename Noreste 2969951 /* Communication with the SSM and deadlines */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2816785 wikitext text/x-wiki == Notice to colloquium == What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Inactive curator template == Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Communication with the SSM and deadlines == A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of "peace". I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now. Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC) f7s3dqn8udjdeg9jvvs01d32eh9fmnk 2816805 2816785 2026-06-25T07:25:14Z Juandev 2651 /* Communication with the SSM and deadlines */ Reply 2816805 wikitext text/x-wiki == Notice to colloquium == What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Inactive curator template == Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == Communication with the SSM and deadlines == A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of "peace". I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now. Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC) 21pey5p5vp4xxzwg9wmx3edhox0pvqo 0 330317 2816692 2816660 2026-06-24T13:49:58Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2816692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Japanese== *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] db55j1rvxjox5m1osskemddbb9nqc4v 2816696 2816692 2026-06-24T14:03:21Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2816696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] 5ubg6vq518l95z50tflh0ho4y5gqiix 2816800 2816696 2026-06-25T06:29:08Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2816800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] qz01966lta6wnmrtev6nk469s75o0ye 2816803 2816800 2026-06-25T07:06:07Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2816803 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] 2uexlw0vqebf59lw6si9nze9ilshrrb 2816804 2816803 2026-06-25T07:15:06Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2816804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] bf3yy92r8hnwfp9ldc1epzhlclcj29e 2816807 2816804 2026-06-25T07:59:46Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2816807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] 7a6d7ynysgs47wgbdyws272emzvl79x 2816808 2816807 2026-06-25T08:08:58Z James500 297601 /* Japanese */ Add 2816808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of languages. World *Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ] *Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Origin *Roy Harris. Origin Of Language. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=386lU_0oUWoC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James R Hurford. Origins of Language: A Slim Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=InTiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Merritt Ruhlen. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. 1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=retrAAAAIAAJ] *Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z_yPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1933#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward (eds). New Essays on the Origin of Language. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pt501C6Zv94C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Claire Lefebvre, Bernard Comrie and Henri Cohen (eds). New Perspectives on the Origins of Language. Studies in Language Companion series, vol 144. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S64bAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Denis Bouchard. The Nature and Origin of Language. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4cRoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Giorgio Fano. The Origins and Nature of Language. Indiana University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fdlrAAAAIAAJ] *Jean Aitchison. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. 1996. Canto Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68Y5gUavbzwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. 2006. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=klUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Prehistory *Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ] History *Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Social history *Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Story *Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952) Classification *April McMahon and Robert McMahon. Language Classification by Numbers. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CrEUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. (Foundations of Linguistics series). Elsevier. New York. 1977. ISBN 0444001557. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2LAuAAAAYAAJ] Extinct *Johannes Friedrich. Extinct Languages. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SzcDAAAAMAAJ] *K David Harrison. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GTfRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dead *Coulter H George. How Dead Languages Work. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xEfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Indo-European *Mate Kapović (ed). The Indo-European Languages. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds). The Indo-European Languages. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **La Lingue Indoeuropee. 1993. *Philip Baldi. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *W B Lockwood. A Panorama of Indo-European Languages. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTLMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xJ0cAQAAIAAJ] Anatolian *Donald C Swanson. A Select Bibliography of the Anatolian Languages. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OR3KP8kCjzUC] Reprinted from Bulletin of the New York Public Library, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ktkaAAAAMAAJ vol 52], nos 5 and 6, May and June 1948, pp 3 to 26. Hittite *Theo van den Hout. The Elements of Hittite. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harry A Hoffner Jr and H Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gq1QEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant and E Adelaide Hahn. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5GRiAAAAMAAJ] *Jaan Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kghtOX_crPMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Edgar H Sturtevant. A Hittite Glossary. 2nd Ed: 1936. Maltese *See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]] Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) *See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]] Asian *Cliff Goddard. The Languages of East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction.2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=364UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] South Asian *Kārumūri V Subbārāo. South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZCfiGYvpLOQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Veneeta Dayal and Anoop Mahajan. Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=puC-wWcl7tQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] East Asian *Papers in East Asian Languages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JIO5KcazJnYC] *Nam-kil Kim and Henry H Tiee. Studies in East Asian Linguistics. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vxoaAQAAIAAJ] *Linguistic Interfaces in East-Asian Languages: A Festschrift in Honor of Yoshihisa Kitagawa. (Studies in East Asian Linguistics.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8QYEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Benjamin A Elman (ed). Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Q6JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Chinese, Japanese and Korean *Reading in Asian Languages: Making Sense of Written Texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HZmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan and Korea *Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Korean *J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ] Japonic *Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japanese and Ryukyuan *Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japan *Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Series *Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics Ryukyuan *Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Ainu *Handbook of the Ainu Language [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FAmKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Katsunobu Izutsu. The Ainu Language: A Linguistic Introduction. Hokkaido University of Education. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ty5kAAAAMAAJ] *Kirsten Refsing. The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDJkAAAAMAAJ] *Batchelor. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. 1889: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gzhqi__TbEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2nd Ed: 1905: [https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft/page/n4/mode/1up]. *Batchelor. A Grammar of the Ainu Language. 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G_xK9M0bOb8C] ==Japanese== Bibliography *Oskar Nachod. "Linguistics". Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. vol 2. Chapter XII. pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/613/mode/1up 613] to 628, 753 and 754. *Wenckstern. "Philology: The Japanese Language". A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. Chapter VI. vol 1, pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false 74] to 88. vol 2, pp [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/74/mode/1up 74] to 89. General *Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ] *Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC] Periodicals *Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ] Introductions *A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ] *Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Understanding *Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ] Learn *Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC] *Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ] *Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miwa Kai. Listen & Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Study *Jun Maeda. Let's Study Japanese. (Tuttle Language Library). 1st Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Courses *Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ] *Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ] *Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ] *Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] Essential *Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC] *Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ] *Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] Ultimate *Ultimate Japanese **Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) Easy *Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C] *Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ] *Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Basic *Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ] *NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC] *Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Demystified, Dummies *Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate *Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ] *Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Intermediate to advanced *The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Advanced *Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C] For scientists and engineers *Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Readings *Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ] History *Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ] *Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ] *N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ] *Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ] Vocabulary *Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ] Words *Akira Miura. Japanese Words & Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Verbs *Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research & Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ] *600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ] **201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ] *Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ] *Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ] *G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ] Adjectives *Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Idioms *Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ] *Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC] Grammar *Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ] *Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Sociolinguistics *Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ] Translation *Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [[Category:Languages]] 22yc9wxdvjhzyijnt7g0n7odju0953t 3 330322 2816667 2026-06-24T12:34:09Z MathXplore 2888076 advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2816667 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-06-24 == <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left" lang="en">[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Leonidmarshall|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span> as a "soapbox"]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span>. Thanks. </div><!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1782304450793.9s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:34, 24 June 2026 (UTC) 6izpt4v5zukfdj3fnppsirzwznojo7t 6 330323 2816669 2026-06-24T12:44:24Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260622 - 20260618) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-24 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2816669 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260622 - 20260618) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-24 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} g7vnjceb8iabwal7l62b6jy4rms3eo8 6 330324 2816671 2026-06-24T12:45:14Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260623 - 20260622) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-24 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2816671 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260623 - 20260622) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-24 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} h0abj6pido9ie1wt07meoy7gcsj7y8f 0 330325 2816691 2026-06-24T13:49:35Z Wmbata 3084293 Created new course 2816691 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial [[headgear]], [[hairstyle]]s, adornments, accessories, clothing and [[insignia]] traditionally associated with the [[Igbo people]]. These include mainly the ichafu ([[head tie]]s), aka (beads), [[helmet]] and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: [[Akupe (hand fan)|akupe]] (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at [[Igbo-Ukwu]] by [[Charles Thurstan Shaw]] uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|[[Bianca Odumegwu-Ojukwu|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu]], an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. [[Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie]] in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, [[Uzo Aduba]] in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper [[The Observer]] of [[Priya Ahluwalia]]'s Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood [[Motif (visual arts)|motifs]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an [[Oxford University Press]] International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese [[kimono]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, [[Head tie|head ties]], headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full [[clothing]] ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or [[textile]]s and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head [[adornment]]s, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''[[Agbogho Mmuo]]'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and [[Headgear|heagears]], necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry [[Bead|beads]] 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a [[Rome|Roman]] helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, [[brass]] ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded [[crown]]s and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo [[dress]] culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral [[bead]]s known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and [[carnelian]] beads used in [[necklace]]s, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by [[Charles Thurstan Shaw|Thurstan Shaw]] show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional [[cap]]s or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in [[Igboland]]. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi [[Nze na Ozo|Nze na ozo]] wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as [[Akupe (hand fan)|Akupe]], ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi [[Nze na Ozo]]. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight [[eagle]] feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|[[Ohafia War Dance|Ohafia war dance]] performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|[[Ohafia]] Igbo dance performance in [[Chicago]] [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or [[Raffia palm|raffia]] hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in [[Ohafia]]. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the [[Ohafia War Dance]] movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by [[Abajah]] and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional [[Hand fan|handfan]] of the [[Igbo people]] which forms part of the [[clothing]] ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw [[leather]] but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and [[copper]] historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of [[Akupe (hand fan)|akupe]] as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to [[Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo-ukwu]] archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as [[Isiagu]], <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>[[Akwete cloth|Akwete]] or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of [[Onitsha]]. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a [[sword]] among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo [[mmanwu]] (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early [[Igboland|Igboland.]]<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose [[cotton]] [[shirt]] or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal [[Robe|robes]], royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching [[Wrapper (clothing)|wrappers]] or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and [[Jewellery|Jewellries]] especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a [[blouse]] known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == Review and Independent Assessment == Review the material presented in the modules above to address these contextual assessment prompts: 1. Explain the historical importance of the 9th-century excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw in relation to modern Igbo regalia. 2. Outline the design attributes and specific historical values that defined the Okpu agu (leopard cap) among Ohafia warriors. 3. Contrast the material differences and traditional uses of the Akupe hand fans carried by titled men versus artistic hand-held fans carried by women. 4. Describe the specific arrangement sequence of the *eregbor na ntukwasi*, blouse, and *ichafu* that completes the silhouette of traditional women's attire. == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] ctkrhg2hjvbrxyt6vqpdfy0xbcm3329 2816693 2816691 2026-06-24T13:50:21Z Wmbata 3084293 2816693 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial [[headgear]], [[hairstyle]]s, adornments, accessories, clothing and [[insignia]] traditionally associated with the [[Igbo people]]. These include mainly the ichafu ([[head tie]]s), aka (beads), [[helmet]] and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: [[Akupe (hand fan)|akupe]] (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at [[Igbo-Ukwu]] by [[Charles Thurstan Shaw]] uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|[[Bianca Odumegwu-Ojukwu|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu]], an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. [[Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie]] in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, [[Uzo Aduba]] in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper [[The Observer]] of [[Priya Ahluwalia]]'s Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood [[Motif (visual arts)|motifs]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an [[Oxford University Press]] International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese [[kimono]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, [[Head tie|head ties]], headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full [[clothing]] ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or [[textile]]s and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head [[adornment]]s, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''[[Agbogho Mmuo]]'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and [[Headgear|heagears]], necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry [[Bead|beads]] 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a [[Rome|Roman]] helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, [[brass]] ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded [[crown]]s and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo [[dress]] culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral [[bead]]s known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and [[carnelian]] beads used in [[necklace]]s, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by [[Charles Thurstan Shaw|Thurstan Shaw]] show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional [[cap]]s or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in [[Igboland]]. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi [[Nze na Ozo|Nze na ozo]] wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as [[Akupe (hand fan)|Akupe]], ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi [[Nze na Ozo]]. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight [[eagle]] feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|[[Ohafia War Dance|Ohafia war dance]] performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|[[Ohafia]] Igbo dance performance in [[Chicago]] [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or [[Raffia palm|raffia]] hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in [[Ohafia]]. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the [[Ohafia War Dance]] movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by [[Abajah]] and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional [[Hand fan|handfan]] of the [[Igbo people]] which forms part of the [[clothing]] ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw [[leather]] but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and [[copper]] historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of [[Akupe (hand fan)|akupe]] as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to [[Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo-ukwu]] archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as [[Isiagu]], <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>[[Akwete cloth|Akwete]] or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of [[Onitsha]]. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a [[sword]] among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo [[mmanwu]] (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early [[Igboland|Igboland.]]<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose [[cotton]] [[shirt]] or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal [[Robe|robes]], royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching [[Wrapper (clothing)|wrappers]] or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and [[Jewellery|Jewellries]] especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a [[blouse]] known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] 0z9s5dr5ai4gx95l9vxhakmu319vbh9 2816699 2816693 2026-06-24T14:10:13Z Wmbata 3084293 2816699 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] inloawuq0zc6a3av97jwmi7h7zr1wx7 2816706 2816699 2026-06-24T14:21:02Z Wmbata 3084293 2816706 wikitext text/x-wiki {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] 9q02cnckdtll4pfmto8u3i057u9saav 2816781 2816706 2026-06-25T00:36:04Z Dreune 3096894 Added link to main Wikipedia article 2816781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|Igbo regalia and Headdresses}} {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] 0pkjzl9p8t16uwazugrla474a55zo26 2816782 2816781 2026-06-25T00:40:05Z Dreune 3096894 2816782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|w:Igbo regalia and Headdresses}} {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] e60skfbpgimc3ceafiebo5jbb4qq4ks 2816783 2816782 2026-06-25T00:49:05Z Dreune 3096894 2816783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|w:Igbo regalia and Headdresses}} {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo regalia and headdresses]] * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] cu2559vyxyd9cm4inl9p6gt6oat1jhj 2816802 2816783 2026-06-25T07:00:53Z Dreune 3096894 2816802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|w:Igbo regalia and Headdresses}} {{course}} == Introduction == '''Igbo regalia and headdresses''' comprise the ceremonial headgear, hairstyles, adornments, accessories, clothing and insignia traditionally associated with the Igbo people. These include mainly the ichafu (head ties), aka (beads), helmet and okpu (caps), Other significant headdresses and regalia include: akupe (hand fans), nza (flywhisks), ofo (elephant tusks), nkpara (staffs ), ugo (eagle's feathers), wigs and other symbolic objects used to express cultural identity, social status, title, spiritual significance and ceremonial functions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Thurstan |title=Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu: archaeological discoveries in eastern Nigeria |date=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575251-9 |location=Ibadan, Nigeria ; New York}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Church Missionary Society |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ien.35556041684267&seq=160 |title=Dictionary of the Ibo Language: English-Ibo |publisher=Church Missionary Society Bookshop |year=1923 |location=Lagos |pages=160}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Dike |first=P. Chike |date=1987 |title=Art, Symbol and Authority Among the Aro of South-east Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Magazine |volume=55 |pages=30-35}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Poynor |first=Robin |url=http://archive.org/details/africanartatharn0000poyn |title=African art at the Harn Museum : spirit eyes, human hands |date=1995 |publisher=Gainesville : University of Florida |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8130-1325-1 |pages=115}}</ref> Many forms of Igbo regalia are associated with rulers, chiefs, and titled individuals. They are used to mark rank, status, office and authority, and remain an important part of [[Igbo culture|Igbo cultural]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Archeological excavations at Igbo-Ukwu by Charles Thurstan Shaw uncovered 9th-century burials containing ceremonial regalia, including beads, Headdresses, crowns, fly-whisks, anklets, and other prestige objects. <ref name=":0" />These discoveries show the long-standing use of adornments and regalia among the Igbo people. == Learning Objectives == Before studying this, you should be able to: * Differentiate between the cultural roles, historical origins, and gender associations of various Igbo headdresses and items of regalia. * Understand the socio-political significance of specific insignia like the Okpu ozo, Okpu agu, and Akupe. * Describe the material culture, artistic elements, and components of traditional Igbo clothing ensembles for both men and women. == Module 1: Women's Headdresses, Coiffures, and Crowns == === Ichafu headdress === [[File:Beauty Queen Bianca.jpg|alt=Bianca Ojukwu wearing Ichafu|thumb|Bianca Odumegwu Ojukwu, an Igbo woman and Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:Igbo woman styled in Igbo Ichafu (headscarf) and Akwete obiakwa. Stunning.jpg|thumb|Igbo woman wearing '''Ichafu''' (Ichafo) headdress boldly and stylishly tied with a damask head-tie fabric]] [[File:Eze Obi Ossai and wives wearing Ichafu with wrappers and elephant tusk Ivory (Odu).jpg|alt=An image of Igbo women in 1841 wearing Ichafu headdress, Odu ukwu, and wrappers and carrying Akupe while the Obi carries mkpara muo.|thumb|Igbo women described by [[William Allen (Royal Navy officer)|William Allen]] in his 1841 book as Eze Obi's wives. The image depicts them wearing headcloths known as Ichafu among the Igbo, and elephant ivory anklets known as ''odu''. They carry ''Akupe'' (handfans) while the Obi carries a staff known as ''nkpara mmuo'']] '''Ichafu''' (also recorded as Ichafo and Icafo in historical sources) is a traditional Igbo women's headdress fashioned from a fabric folded, twisted, and pinned into elaborate shapes like a large flower sitting on the head. It is a prominent part of ceremonial dresses typically worn by Nigerian women with traditional outfits. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in a piece republished in Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters, edited by Gay Garnet narrated watching her mother arrange Ichafu on her head until it sat on her head like a large flower<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |title=Style and substance: why what we wear matters |date=2023 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-3998-1246-7 |editor-last=Garnett |editor-first=Bay |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Butticci |first=Annalisa |title=African Pentecostals in Catholic Europe: the politics of presence in the twenty-first century |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73709-9 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>Likewise, Uzo Aduba in her memoir The road is Good described wearing an elaborate Ichafu on her head in the most gorgeous coral colour.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Aduba |first=Uzo |title=The road is good: how a mother's strength became a daughter's purpose |date=2024 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29912-8 |location=New York}}</ref> Ichafu has influenced contemporay fashion design beyond [[Nigeria]]. A review in the [[fashion]] section of the British newspaper The Observer of Priya Ahluwalia's Spring/Summer 2026 collection noted that the designer's Jacquard knits drew inspiration from Nigerian Ichafu headwraps alongside Bollywood motifs<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deaman |first=Jo Jones, Helen Seamons, Sam |title=Hometown glory: highlights from London Fashion Week sprin... |url=https://observer.co.uk/style/fashion/article/hometown-glory-highlights-from-london-fashion-week-springsummer-2026 |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=The Observer |language=en}}</ref> Ichafu is also included in an Oxford University Press International Baccalaureate Visual Arts curriculum under the theme "Textiles and cultural signs" alongside Japanese kimonos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/visual-arts-paterson-poppy-and-vaughn-oxford-2017 |title=Visual Arts Paterson, Poppy And Vaughn Oxford 2017 Textbook |date=2017}}</ref> Headcloths formed an important part of traditional Igbo women's headdresses and attire. Historical and linguistic sources record terms such as Ichafu, Icafo, Ichafo, Ichafu isi in reference to headcloths, head ties, headgears and headdresses worn by Igbo women in both everyday and ceremonial settings. This headdress was associated with markets, meetings, religious observances, weddings, celebrations, and other social occasions.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Cowen |first=Rhoda |url=https://archive.org/details/goldsilverthread0000cowe |title=The Gold and Silver Threads: A memoir of Life in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd |year=1994 |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, England |publication-date=1994 |pages=67, 84}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=M M |url=https://archive.org/detailsibovillageaffair0000gree/page/218/mode/1up |title=Ibo Village Affairs |date=1947 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |year=1947 |location=Sidgwick London |publication-date=1947 |pages=136, 218, 226}}</ref> Headcloths are part of a long-standing tradition of Igbo women's headdresses and full clothing ensemble. In the ethnographic work of the anthropologist M.M. Green in Igboland, he documented women in 1947 wearing festive headcloths to market and observed that headcloths were commonly worn at meetings and social gatherings as part of their clothing ensemble.<ref name=":13" /> Igbo headtie is worn in a big, bold and stylish manner with flared ends using vibrant fabrics measuring six by three feet in size. Writing about her experiences in Igboland, Rhoda Cowen described Igbo headtie referred to as Ichafo and Icafo as a big brightly colored headdress worn in a bold and stylish manner noting that some were wrapped around the head with projecting ends, while others formed striking elements of women's attire alongside vibrant colored fabrics or textiles and gold jewellery.<ref name=":12" /> Igbo headtie has also been recorded in ethnographic studies of Igbo dress as a headgear fashioned from a decorative piece of cloth worn around the head known as Ichafo. It is fashioned from a piece of cloth approximately six by three feet in size, folded into triangular or rectangular forms and wrapped around the head in an elevated manner that creates a style resembling a tall turban with decorative bow. According to the author, a headgear is distinguished from a head-tie which is smaller and worn flat around the head in the Nigerian context while defining Igbo style of headtie as a headgear.<ref name=":9" /> === Helmet coiffures and beaded crowns === Igbo headdresses also include elaborate female head adornments, as well as decorative headgear featuring elaborate coiffures worn by masquerades such as the ''Agbogho Mmuo'' (maiden spirit) during festivals and cultural events. The Headdresses and costumes are intended to depict female figures and their feminine appearance and attributes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Celenko |first=Theodore |title=A treasury of African art from the Harrison Eiteljorg Collection |last2=Eiteljorg |first2=Harrison |date=1983 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11057-2 |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[File:Ancient Igbo helmet Coiffures and headgear (1921).jpg|alt=Helmet Coiffures and Headgears of Ancient Igbo brides|thumb|Ethnographic photos of Igbo brides known as Nkpu brides of prospective chiefs dressed in helmet Coiffures and heagears, necklaces of Leapard teeth and aggry beads 1920.]] Helmet-shaped coiffures were among the elaborate hairstyles historically worn by Igbo women during courtship, marriage festivities, and other ceremonial occasions. Some were built on a foundation of clay, charcoal and palm oil and moulded into a crest resembling the central ridge of a Roman helmet, extending from the forehead to the nape of the neck. The coiffures were often further decorated with beads, small could plaits, cowry shells, mother-of-pearl, brass ornaments, and mirrors sewn into the hair.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Basden |first=George Thomas |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.115290.39088000476515 |title=Among the Ibos of Nigeria |date=1921 |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., ltd}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Chudi-Duru |first=Chika C. |date=2024 |title=MMA NWANYI BU EKIKE |url=https://www.journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/UJOCC/article/viewFile/3950/4060 |journal=Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization (often abbreviated UJOCC) |volume=3 |pages=96-115}}</ref> Other recorded styles include a raised helmet-like ridge formed on a clay foundation and decorated with beads, cowry shells, leopard claws, camwood paste, and other adornments. Such coiffures could signify age, status, wealth or other stages of life and formed part of ceremonial female adornment in parts of Igboland.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> [[File:An Igbo bride adorn with the isi agu and the red bead.jpg|alt=An attire featuring Igbo beaded head crown called ngala, aka, and nza|thumb|An Igbo bride adorned with beaded crown called ''ngala'', aka(coral beads) worn around the neck and wrist and worn as earrings and carrying the ''nza'' (flywhisks) regalia.]] While elaborate Helmet-shaped coiffures were a prominent part of historical Igbo women's ceremonial adornment, contemporary ceremonial attire incorporates beaded crowns and bead-based headpieces. Studies of present-day Igbo dress culture depict the brides and her maidens wearing beaded crowns as part of the traditional attire, or decorate their hair with bead accessories during weddings and Cultural celebrations. Beaded crowns, together with corals and other ornamental beads remain a prominent feature of Igbo regalia and are associated with beauty, femininity, cultural identity, fertility, spiritual well-being and marital blessings.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> == Module 2: Elite Signifiers, Beads, and Men's Okpu == === Aka === [[File:Igbo Bride during her traditional marriage 20220216.jpg|alt=Igbo bride adorned with beaded accessories and Uli body arts and carrying a Calabash.|thumb|An Igbo bride dressed for ''Igbankwu'' (traditional wedding) adorned in beaded accessories featuring aka attached on the head, ''nkalari'' or ''erulu'' (coral beads) around the neck, wrists ankles and also worn as earrings. She carries the ''nza'' (fly whisk) regalia and a Calabash with her legs designed in Uli body arts.]] Beaded accessories made of glass beads are known as ''aka'' among the Igbo people. They're of various types which consist of coral beads known as ''erulu'' or ''aka'' and waist beads known as ''mgbaji''. The large coral beads are known as ''nkalari''. The ''mgbaji'' is usually a kind of flat circular coral beads worn around the waist. The large coral beads are worn around the neck, and also worn as earrings and on the wrists.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Melie |first=Edith E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqZbAAAAMAAJ |title=The Ozo Title of Onitsha: A Study of it's Dress and Insignia |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |year=1977 |location=Madison, Wisconsin, USA |publication-date=1977 |pages=87-140}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgOAQAAMAAJ |title=Ikenga |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref> Aka is an important part of both Igbo men's and Women's dress fashion. Among the men, it is also regarded as a status symbol across [[Africa]] and a ceremonial adornment like bridal attire for Igbo women. Gold beads are also incorporated in the dress attire.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> [[File:Glass beads from Igbo-Ukwu.jpg|thumb|9th Century carbon-dated Igbo-ukwu glass beads.]] Beads are highly valued in Igboland<ref>{{Cite book |last=Afigbo |first=A. E. |title=The Igbo and their neighbours: inter-group relations in southeastern Nigeria to 1953 |date=1987 |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-575713-2 |location=Ibadan}}</ref> and have long been an important part of Igbo ceremonial dress and adornment. Excavations at Igbo-ukwu uncovered large quantities of glass and carnelian beads used in necklaces, armlets, wristlets, girdles, and other ornaments. In one royal burial, hundreds of beads were found around the skull, which suggests that the deceased wore a beaded headdress, while strings of beads and a [[copper]] crown was part of the ceremonial regalia. These discoveries dated as early as the 9th century by Thurstan Shaw show that beaded accessories was widely used as a regalia symbol and adornment in ancient Igbo society.<ref name=":0" /> === Okpu === Okpu refers to traditional caps or helmets used by Igbo adult males of various statuses and ranks in the society for symbolic purposes. There are different kinds of Okpu worn by adult males in Igboland. The most prominent are feathered red cap known as ''okpu ozo'' and leopard cap known as ''Okpu agu''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=John Nwachimereze |url=http://archive.org/details/ngwahistorystudy0055orij |title=Ngwa history : a study of social and economic changes in Igbo mini-states in time perspective |date=1991 |publisher=New York : P. Lang |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8204-1411-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=http://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> ==== Okpu ozo ==== [[File:Red Cap Chiefs at an Igbo Traditional Ceremony.jpg|alt=Ndi Nze na ozo you Okpu ozo ma jidekwa Akupe, ofo, na mkpara|thumb|Titled Igbo men known as Ndi Nze na ozo wearing their traditional regalia featuring Okpu ozo (red caps made of hide with eagle's feathers). Their attire also features other Igbo regalia insignia such as Akupe, ''ofo'', ''nza'', ''nkpara'']] Okpu ozo is described as the feathered red cap worn by titled men known as Ndi Nze na Ozo. As a paraphernalia of office, okpu is regarded as sacred thereby prohibiting ordinary people from touching them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriji |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZliAQAAQBAJ |title=Political Organization in Nigeria since the Late Stone Age: A History of the Igbo People |date=2011-01-17 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-11668-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-Y6dSeFt_sC |title=Ikenga |date=1980 |publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. |language=en}}</ref>It is a high-crowned red cap made of hide and usually encircled with eight eagle feather plumes called ''ugo''.This is particularly worn by the title holders called ''Nze''. It can also be modest or low-crowned without the feather decorations worn by the ''Ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ubani |first=Kenneth |date=2019 |title=Igbo Leadership Through the Visual Arts: Back to the Future |url= |journal=Canadian Social Science |volume=15 |issue=7}}</ref> It is also known as Okpu ''mmee mmee'' which literally translates to colour of the cap and okpu ''mmee'' which signifies true loyalty. Some Igbo regions also refer to it as ''okpu eze''. <ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ifemesia |first=C. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/traditionalhuman00ifem |title=Traditional humane living among the Igbo : an historical perspecitve |date=1979 |publisher=Enugu, Nigeria : Fourth Dimension Publishers |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-978-156-062-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Okpu ozo is regarded as an insignia that protects the wearer when he was away from his lineage or village as well as other travellers.<ref name=":4" /> The wearers are known as Ndi nze na ozo or red cap chiefs. To obtain the title, a candidate traditionally applied to the red cap chiefs, who supervised the initiation ceremony. During the capping ceremony, the initiate was presented with a red cap and feather as a symbol of his new status and a symbol of authority to enable him perform his duties. This capping stage is also known as ''ikube-okpu''. He also receives other insignia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Umeasiegbu |first=Rems N. |title=The way we lived: Ibo customs and stories |date=1981 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-90061-8 |edition=Repr |series=African writers series |location=London}}</ref> ==== Okpu agu ==== [[File:Igbo kwenu.jpg|alt=Nwoke yi ekike Okpu agu na agba egwu Ohafia|thumb|Ohafia war dance performer wearing Okpu agu]] [[File:Ohafia Igbo Dance Performance Chicago.jpg|alt=Ndi yi Okpu agu agba egwu Ohafia na Chicago|thumb|Ohafia Igbo dance performance in Chicago [[United States]] featuring the Okpu agu Igbo regalia]] Some descriptions of Igbo headdresses highlight that three kinds of helmets were worn: thick ones made of coco-yam stalks, or of the bark of the Achi tree, and fine looking but thin ones made of young palm leaves or raffia hats called ''okpu uturu.''<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Percy Amaury |title=The People's of Southern Nigeria: A sketch of their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an abstract of 1921 Census. |publisher=Oxford University Press, H Milford. |year=1926 |location=London |publication-date=1926 |pages=413, 839}}</ref> Among these headgears was the okpu agu, a cap associated with Ohafia warrior traditions, known as the leopard cap of bravery. It is round slanting cap made of a knitted wool of black, white and red stripes with a pattern that resemble leopard markings from which the cap derives its name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCall |first=John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=204eAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ohafia War Dance as Lived Experience |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1992 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |pages=37}}</ref> The okpu agu was an important symbol of warrior achievement in Ohafia. According to historical accounts, the red colour of the cap was traditionally reserved for warriors who had taken heads in battle, or returned with the slain body of a strong animal like the leopard and the caps were dyed with the blood of war victims, while the black and white stripe evoked the leopard and it's qualities of strength, agility and martial prowess that were admired in accomplished warriors, as well as the leopard body movement that characterizes the Ohafia War Dance movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacCall |first=John Christensen |title=Dancing histories: heuristic ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo |date=2000 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11070-4 |location=Ann Arbor}}</ref> Okpu agu was manufactured locally by process of bending over, tying and sowing. It is also known as ''Okpu-Aji'' by Nkanu Igbo people and ''Okpu Ojji'' by Abajah and ''Okpu oggu'' (fighting war caps)<ref name=":5" /> == Module 3: Ceremonial Utensils, Insignia, and Fly-Whisks == === Akupe (hand fan) === [[File:Akupe handfan.webp|thumb|Igbo man carrying an Akupe with ofo symbol carved on it. The image also features him wearing ''Okpu'' ''Ozo'' and Isiagu flowing shirt and ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around his wrist.]] Akupe is a ceremonial traditional handfan of the Igbo people which forms part of the clothing ensemble of Igbo men and women. However, it isn't merely used as a [[fashion]] complement but functions as both a practical object and insignia or symbol of status within Igbo society. It is mainly made of raw leather but was also made of other materials like straw, palm products and copper historically. As a paraphernalia of office, it is mainly associated with the ''Nze na ozo'' title holders.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Uzochukwu |first=Sam |title=Traditional funeral poetry of the Igbo |date=2001 |publisher=Lagos University Press |isbn=978-978-017-624-2 |location=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> The use of akupe as a ceremonial regalia in Igbo land dates back to Igbo-ukwu archeology where copper hand fan with a handle made of wooden shaft along with other status symbols were unearthed from a royal burial chamber of whom was described by Thurstan Shaw as a high ranking titled man or royalty. These excavations which included the fan was dated 9th century<ref name=":0" /> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and Fashion among the men ==== The Akupe serves as both a ceremonial insignia and an element of elite male in Igbo Society. It is part of the regalia of titled men like the Ozo title holders, chiefs. and elders. Typically carried at the hand, it complements other symbols of status such as the ''Okpu'', ''nkpara'', ''nza'' or ''odu enyi'' and the traditional flowing shirt known as Isiagu, <ref>{{Cite book |last=Omolade |first=Ajetunmobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GISAQAAIAAJ |title=Themes in Social Studies Education and Culture: A book of Readings |year=2000 |location=Nigeria |publication-date=2000 |pages=156-166}}</ref>Akwete or Akwa ocha.<ref name=":8" /> Although it is made of various materials, the titled men specifically use raw leather made handfans which is either called Akupe or ''agu''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ndimele |first=Ozo-mekuri |title=Four Decades in the Study of Languages and Linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Kay Williamson |year=2003 |publication-date=2003 |pages=435}}</ref> Other names generally used to refer to the ceremonial fan is ''nkuku'' and ''nzuzu'' especially among the ''Agbalanze'' titled group of Onitsha. The Akupe is designed and decorated in various ways but particularly in a thick and heavy pattern for the titled men. Their titles or names are written or carved at the surface of the handfans while their vehicle plate numbers are also designed as such for identification.<ref name=":1" /> The fan is not merely acquired by titled men but bestowed on them during the capping ceremony where candidates are installed as Nze no ozo title holders or red cap chiefs. The final stage of the ceremony involves handing the candidate the ''Okpu nze na ozo'' and the ''Ugo'' feather, a fan and a sword among other insignia.<ref name=":14" /> Akupe also serves as a ritual symbol in the Igbo mmanwu (masquerade) tradition, particularly in the cultural ceremony known as the [[Ijele Masquerade|Ijele]] dance where a significant personality among the dance group is known as Akupe carrier. While he is not a masquerade, he plays the prominent role of leading the ''Ijele'' with it's symbolic powerful Akupe. The disappearance of either the Akupe or it's bearer is believed to place the Ijele at risk. The Akupe bearer determines the movement of the Ijele, which moves or remains stationary according to the bearer's actions<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikemerike |first=Ikechukwu John |last2=Efuruhievwe |first2=Margaret Akpevweogene |date=2023 |title=Globalization as a Threat to Cultural Identity: A Case Study of Igba Ijele Dance Group of Awkuzu, Anambra State |url=https://ssjhis.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/33.-Globalization-as-a-Threat-to-Cultural-Identity-A-Case-Study-of-Igba-Ijele-Dance-Group-of-Awkuzu-Anambra-State.pdf |journal=South-South Journal of Humanities and International Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=475-496}}</ref> ==== Akupe as a ceremonial regalia and fashion among the women ==== [[File:Akupe- locally made hand fan.jpg|thumb|Akupe made of decorative woolen textiles often used by women including brides and maids of honour ]] In Igbo society, both large hand fans and artistic hand-held fans have traditionally formed part of women's ceremonial presentation, particularly during weddings, festivals or public celebrations. Historical accounts of Igbo marriage and courtship customs as early as 1921, describe Igbo brides and her maids of honour carrying large fans during the marriage ceremony, particularly the ''Nkpu'' rite to cool and keep the bride refreshed after dancing during the ceremony<ref name=":6" /> In Igbo dances and performance traditions, artistic hand-held fans are used for aesthetics and symbolic purposes where they form part of the ceremonial ensemble<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obijiaku |first=Chidi |date=2023-02-27 |title=HYBRIDITY IN MODERN NIGERIAN MUSIC: THE CASE OF IGBO CHORAL ART MUSIC |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/2456 |journal=African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 |issn=2524-2741}}</ref> === Fly-whisks (''Nza'', ''Odu ebule'') === [[File:Fly whisk (AM 2015.34.53-1).jpg|thumb|Fly-whisk (''Nza'' or ''Odu ebule'')]] Fly-whisks are known as ''Nza'' or ''odu ebule'' among the Igbo people. It is a traditional ceremonial accessory and symbol of distinction in Igbo society. It forms part of the regalia of titled men, chiefs, elders, and other person's of rank also integrated into the attire which includes the akupe, headgear, staff among others. Historical accounts of title taking ceremonies describe newly initiated titled men receiving ceremonial objects as part of their elevation into positions of honour and responsibility within the community such as the ''Ozo'' title.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" /> Archeological evidence from Igbo-ukwu, dating to about the 9th century, shows the antiquity flywhisks within Igbo ceremonial culture. The excavations that uncovered a royal burial furnished with elaborate regalia and the reconstructions of the chamber depicted the high ranking individual holding a ceremonial fly-whisk among other insignia of authority. These regalia have been interpreted in studies as markets of prestige, rank, leadership, royalty, and ritual symbolisms in early Igboland.<ref name=":0" /> Beyond functioning as an insignia among titled men, royalty and chiefs, fly-whisks and related descriptions of the regalia has been recorded as forming part of the attire of Igbo dancers and brides during festivities or ceremonies like dance performances and traditional marriage. According to Basden in 1921, ''Nkpu'' brides during their marriage ceremony carried cow's tail mounted on a leather handle, sometimes accompanied by small mirrors placed in specially carved hand held frames, including large fans which all formed part of their attire in the ceremony.<ref name=":6" /> ''Odu enyi'' is also used in artistic and performance traditions of the Igbi people like the ''nkpokiti'' dance. Studies of Igbo oral poetry includes the fly-whisks among the symbolic paraphernalia carried by performers as emblems of their artistry. The flywhisks were described as part of the ceremonial props employed in dances, processions, and choral performance where they serve both symbolic and aesthetic functions as they express the Igbo culture.<ref name=":15" /> == Module 4: Traditional Dress and Ensembles == === Igbo traditional dress and fashion === Igbo traditional dress and fashion for men typically comprise of loose cotton shirt or robe over an ankle-length wrapper, or loin cloths fashioned from various local Igbo fabrics like the Isiagu, Akwete or Akwaocha complemented with ''okpu'', ''akupe'', ''odu enyi'', ''mkpara'', ''ofo'' and adornments with ''aka'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists. These regalia items proclaim status within the society. Royal robes, royal headdresses, silver sword were used to describe the attire of Igbo royalty like the Obi of Onitsha by Nzimiro and Henderson while the red cap chiefs dressed in their own special attire<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebuziem |first=Cajetan E. |title=Doing Ministry in the Igbo Context: Towards an Emerging Model and Method for the Church in Africa- Foreword by Theophilus Okere |date=2011 |publisher=Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4331-1154-9 |edition= |series=Bible and Theology in Africa |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Nnoromele |first=Salome |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeamongibowome0000nnor |title=Life among the Ibo women of Nigeria |publisher=Lucent books, San Diego |year=1998 |location=San Diego |publication-date=1998}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> <ref name=":16" /> Among the women, the typical tradition of dress consist of a pair of matching wrappers or double wrappers known as ''eregbor'' na ''ntukwasi'', a blouse called ''efe obi'' made of Akwete or George fabrics and Ichafu (also spelt Ichafo and Icafo). In ordinary circumstances according to M.M Green in 1947, the women wore short wrappers folded around the hips and reaching the knee with a headcloth while for ceremonial functions a blouse or tunic was worn together with the waist wrappers and festive headcloth <ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Lamb Holmes |first=Venice Judy |title=Nigerian Weaving |publisher=The Roxford Press |year=1981 |pages=247-280}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Kate P. |last2=Eicher |first2=Joanne Bubolz |last3=Dendel |first3=Esther Warner |date=1978 |title=Nigerian Handcrafted Textiles |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3335408 |journal=African Arts |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=14 |doi=10.2307/3335408 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":17" /> Igbo women complement their dressing with ''aka'' (beads) and Jewellries especially for festivities or ceremonial occasions like traditional marriage known as ''Igba nkwu''.The beadded accessories include ''aka'' or ''nkalari'' (coral beads) worn around the neck and wrists and used as earrings, ''mgbaji'' (flat circular waist beads) worn around the waist, and ''ola'' (iron bangles) around the ankles.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":17" /> ==== Layered Identical Double Wrappers (''Eregbor na Ntukwasi''), Blouse (''Efe obi'') and Ichafu ==== Traditionally, Igbo women's textiles like Akwete of all category are woven in pairs of identical design as well as sold in pairs. These pairs are not sewn together but worn together. The two pairs of wrappers are known as ''eregbor na ntukwasi,'' made of multicolored geometric or floral design. The first wrapper is wrapped around the waist and extends down to the ankle. The second wrapper overlaps the first from the waist to the knees, giving the wrappers a layered look. The wrappers are paired with a blouse known as ''efe obi'' which s tucked inside. This combination of wrappers and blouse are paired with head ties described by Chimamanda Adichie as Ichafu. The textiles used are usually Akwete and George.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":17" /> In recounting her past, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie describes how she had seen her mother dress up in her double wrappers, blouse and Ichafu.  {{Blockquote|text=She folded and twisted and pinned her Ichafu until it sat on her head like a large flower. She wrapped her George - heavy beaded cloth, alive with embroidery, always in bright shades of red or purple pink - around her waist in two layers, The first, the longer piece, hit her ankles, and the second formed an elegant tier just below her knees. Her sequinned blouse caught the light and glittered. Her shoes and handbag always matched|author=Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie|title=Style and Substance: Why What We Wear Matters}} This attire ensemble of layered double wrappers called ''eregbor na'' ''ntukwasi'' paired with a blouse and Ichafu (Ichafo) head tie is also complemented with jewelleries as described by Chimamanda and Uzo Aduba who had witnessed their mother and aunt dress up.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> [[File:Igbo woman wearing Jooji obiakwa(double wrapper) with uweobi and Ichafu.jpg|left|thumb|A full clothing ensemble of the Igbo woman featuring ''Eregbor na ntukwasi'' (Layered identical George wrappers) paired with a puffed sleeved blouse ''(efe elu)'' and an Ichafu (Ichafo) headdress]] [[File:An igbo woman in Ichafu headdress.jpg|thumb|An Igbo woman wearing a fitted blouse (''efe obi'')]] == See also == * [[Igbo regalia and headdresses]] * [[Igbo culture]] [[Category:Igbo culture]] [[Category:Material Culture]] [[Category:Learning Modules]] mmeia21p47574l9warxvdfmbnp9d17w 6 330326 2816702 2026-06-24T14:13:30Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2A traditional (20260624 - 20260623) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-06-24 |Author=Young W. 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