Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.12 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 98507 2819486 2723163 2026-07-27T08:42:55Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2819486 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the navigational waters, some places we'll visit, and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – why do people feel the way they feel? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. The fascinating array of theories and will help make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. This psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. In addition, the key assessment for this unit, is novel. It involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== Step-by-step guide: # Get an overview: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # Enrol via MyUC in: ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial # Check the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) and put the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|schedule]] in your calendar # Assessment ## Check out the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|assessment]] and note the due dates ## Learn about [[Wikiversity]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use it]] ### [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ### Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ### Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ### More information about using Wikiversity will be provided during lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]], but you can also teach yourself by exploring and experimenting). For more info, see [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. ## Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Think about what chapter topic you would like to contribute to the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Discuss with others via: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] ## [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For more assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> 8yjtfcco4od1p9vwsjs4j5irxlmp91i 2819490 2819486 2026-07-27T10:02:08Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2819490 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. The fascinating array of theories and will help make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. This psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. In addition, the key assessment for this unit, is novel. It involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== Step-by-step guide: # Get an overview: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # Enrol via MyUC in: ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial # Check the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) and put the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|schedule]] in your calendar # Assessment ## Check out the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|assessment]] and note the due dates ## Learn about [[Wikiversity]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use it]] ### [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ### Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ### Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ### More information about using Wikiversity will be provided during lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]], but you can also teach yourself by exploring and experimenting). For more info, see [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. ## Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Think about what chapter topic you would like to contribute to the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Discuss with others via: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] ## [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For more assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> rcezk42lsgdl25txdr3bxdmfw4d776l 2819506 2819490 2026-07-27T11:25:08Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2819506 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== Step-by-step guide: # Get an overview: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # Enrol via MyUC in: ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial # Check the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) and put the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|schedule]] in your calendar # Assessment ## Check out the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|assessment]] and note the due dates ## Learn about [[Wikiversity]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use it]] ### [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ### Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ### Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ### More information about using Wikiversity will be provided during lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]], but you can also teach yourself by exploring and experimenting). For more info, see [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. ## Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Think about what chapter topic you would like to contribute to the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Discuss with others via: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] ## [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For more assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> jg3eh1zz3tslskkgl77x72wdodik1hf 2819507 2819506 2026-07-27T11:27:16Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ 2819507 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== Step-by-step guide: # Get an overview: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] ## {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] in: ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial # Check the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) and put the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|schedule]] in your calendar # Assessment ## Check out the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|assessment]] and note the due dates ## Learn about [[Wikiversity]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use it]] ### [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ### Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ### Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ### More information about using Wikiversity will be provided during lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]], but you can also teach yourself by exploring and experimenting). For more info, see [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. ## Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Think about what chapter topic you would like to contribute to the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Discuss with others via: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] ## [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For more assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> medfe93phqssevewhwd0sks5d2qdw90 2819509 2819507 2026-07-27T11:31:20Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ Update for 2026 2819509 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== Step-by-step guide: # Get an overview: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] ## {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] in: ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial # Put the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|schedule]] in your calendar # Assessment ## Check out the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|assessment]] and note the due dates ## Learn about [[Wikiversity]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use it]] ### [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ### Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ### Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ### Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and experimenting. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. ## Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Think about what chapter topic you would like to contribute to the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. ## Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed # Discuss with others via: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] ## [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> dhxdkurdea8q6p4rc70xpvfwklziha8 2819515 2819509 2026-07-27T11:45:23Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ Update for 2026 2819515 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== Step-by-step guide === Step 1: Get an overview=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} === Step 2: Enrol === # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] === ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial ===Step 3: Key dates for your calendar=== # Put key dates for the unit in your calendar: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|Timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) ## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/Schedule|Schedule]] === Major project=== # Learn about the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] and [[Wikiversity]]. Feel free to experiment and learn about [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use and edit Wikiversity]]. ## [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ## Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ## Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ## Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and trying things out. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. # Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Consider what chapter topic(s) you could contribute to the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed ===Discuss=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] # [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] === For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] === <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> lwdaz7tv2t5a5ivtwk1par5nvjjcqyo 2819517 2819515 2026-07-27T11:47:59Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ 2819517 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== === Step 1: Get an overview=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} === Step 2: Enrol === # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] === ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial ===Step 3: Key dates for your calendar=== # Put key dates for the unit in your calendar: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|Timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) ## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/Schedule|Schedule]] ===Step 4: Learn about the major project=== # Learn about the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] and [[Wikiversity]]. You can experiment (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use and edit Wikiversity]]). ## [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ## Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ## Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ## Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and trying things out. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. # Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Consider what chapter topic(s) you might be interested to develop for the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed ===Discuss=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn Discussion]] # [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] === For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] === <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> 1n9p7zl9nn1dnz9qz8njvlftnictan6 2819519 2819517 2026-07-27T11:49:07Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ 2819519 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== === Step 1: Get an overview=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} === Step 2: Enrol === # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] === ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial ===Step 3: Key dates for your calendar=== # Put key dates for the unit in your calendar: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|Timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) ## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/Schedule|Schedule]] ===Step 4: Learn about the major project=== # Learn about the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] and [[Wikiversity]]. You can experiment (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use and edit Wikiversity]]). ## [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ## Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ## Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ## Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and trying things out. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. # Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Consider what chapter topic(s) you might be interested to develop for the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed ===Step 5: Connect and discuss=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn discussion]] # [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> oecy684xhy6dul2lhhynfck9ox2zl07 2819520 2819519 2026-07-27T11:50:02Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ 2819520 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== === Step 1: Get an overview=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} === Step 2: Enrol === # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] === ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial ===Step 3: Key dates for your calendar=== # Put key dates for the unit in your calendar: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|Timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) ## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|Schedule]] ===Step 4: Learn about the major project=== # Learn about the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] and [[Wikiversity]]. You can experiment (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use and edit Wikiversity]]). ## [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ## Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ## Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ## Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and trying things out. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. # Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Consider what chapter topic(s) you might be interested to develop for the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed ===Step 5: Connect and discuss=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn discussion]] # [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> 9zs5aqkt6jt9pt8fb3dx40levjilahe 2819521 2819520 2026-07-27T11:55:00Z Jtneill 10242 /* Getting started */ 2819521 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an open, online book chapter. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== === Step 1: Get an overview=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} === Step 2: Enrol === # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial ===Step 3: Key dates for your calendar=== # Put key dates for the unit in your calendar: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|Timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) ## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|Schedule]] ===Step 4: Learn about the major project=== # Learn about the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] and [[Wikiversity]]. You can experiment (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use and edit Wikiversity]]). ## [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ## Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ## Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ## Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and trying things out. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. # Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Consider what chapter topic(s) you might be interested to develop for the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed ===Step 5: Connect and discuss=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn discussion]] # [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> 2zdkiin4wryyj9hyyk2nx859af2doij 2819522 2819521 2026-07-27T11:56:10Z Jtneill 10242 2819522 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Welcome==</noinclude> {| style="width: 90%; margin: auto;" |- | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:196 Triremo.svg|right|100px]] | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 66%" | {{center|'''Ahoy and welcome aboard''' the good ship<br>[[File:Motivation & Emotion.png|alt=Motivation and emotion|center|160px]]<!-- "[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]"! -->}} which sails from the port of [[University of Canberra]] each year, with ~150 crew on board. Lead by [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]], we journey the high seas of psychology in search of "why people do what they do" and "why people feel the way they feel", according to [[psychological science|scientific psychology]]. The intrepid voyagers share their discoveries through an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|open, online book chapter]]. Read on to learn about the places we'll visit and how to get started. | style="width: 4%" | | style="width: 13%" | <br><br>[[File:MOREmoji pirate.svg|right|100px]] |} <hr> This undergraduate psychology unit explores two core aspects of human being that most people find fascinating, namely: * '''[[Motivation]]''' – Why do people do what they do? * '''[[Emotion]]''' – Why do people feel the way they feel? In addition, the unit considers: * '''Application''': How can motivations and emotions be modified? Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|readings]] can provide valuable insight into understanding yourself and others. A fascinating range of theories helps make studying motivation and emotion a highlight for many psychology students. The psychology of motivation and emotion applies to everyday life, including health and wellbeing, work, learning, relationships, and development of human potential. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment exercise for this unit involves each student developing an open, online book chapter about a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book|examples]]. The journey ahead won't always be easy, but open-mindedness and active engagement will be keys to success. <!-- ==Structure== This unit has a T-shaped structure. [[File:Initial T in The International magazine.png|center|70px]] The horizontal part of the T represents '''breadth''' of knowledge. [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] discuss core concepts and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] explore how they apply in the real world. The vertical part of the T represents '''depth''' of knowledge. This unit challenges you to take a deep dive to explore a specific motivation or emotion topic. This leads to production of a publicly-available online book chapter. ==Main topics== --> Explore the [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lecture]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials| tutorial]] topics below to learn more: {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}} {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} ==Getting started== === Step 1: Get an overview=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About|About this unit]] # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Outline|Unit outline]] # {{Motivation and emotion/UCLearn}} === Step 2: Enrol === # Enrol via [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html MyUC] ## the unit (realtime or on-campus) ## allocate to a tutorial ===Step 3: Key dates for your calendar=== # Put key dates for the unit in your calendar: ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Timetable|Timetable]] (for lectures and tutorials) ## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]] ## [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|Schedule]] ===Step 4: Learn about the major project=== # Learn about the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] and [[Wikiversity]]. You can experiment (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|how to use and edit Wikiversity]]). ## [[Create a Wikiversity account]]—choose a user name appropriate to your privacy requirements (can be a real name, student ID, or a pseudonym) ## Practice editing in a [[sandbox]] ## Describe a little about yourself and areas of interest on your Wikiversity [[Help:User page|user page]]. ## Lectures and tutorials (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Tutorial 01]]) will provide more information about Wikiversity, but you can also teach yourself by exploring and trying things out. See also: [[Help:Contents|Wikiversity - Help]]. # Browse the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapter topics]]. Consider what chapter topic(s) you might be interested to develop for the current {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. # Sign up for a book chapter topic—first in, best dressed ===Step 5: Connect and discuss=== # [[Motivation and emotion/About/Discussion|UCLearn discussion]] # [[Help:Talk pages|Wikiversity talk pages]] # For assistance, see [[Motivation and emotion/About/Help|help]] <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion]]</noinclude> 8qp3gpydfdf1rab60ivnhk7pq3h8imz 2 106888 2819453 2814862 2026-07-26T20:32:54Z Atcovi 276019 {{wikibreak}} 2819453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikibreak}} __NOTOC__ {{userboxtop}} {{User Male}} {{User Muslim}} {{Sri Lankan}} {{User contrib|25000}} {{User SUL Box|2=v}} {{User Wikiversitan For|year=2011|month=1|day=28}} {{User custodian}} {{User admin Wikibooks}} {{User admin MediaWiki}} {{Global rollbacker}} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User researcher}} {{User soccer}} {{User psychology}} {{userboxbottom}}{{Introduction}} I'm Atcovi, a member of the English Wikiversity community since January 2011. I currently serve as a [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]] (since June 2021) and a [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] (since May 2026). My academic interests mainly lie within [[School:Psychology|psychology]], specifically [[clinical psychology]] (with subfields of interest being [[suicidology|suicide]] and [[General Psychopathology|psychopathology]]). My activity is high at the moment but may fluctuate due to life circumstances. Reach out to my talk page for any inquiries. ===Links=== [[File:Sura Minshawi 2.ogg|thumb|left|[[w:Muhammad_Siddiq_Al-Minshawi|Sheikh Minshawi's]] recitation of Surah Al-Baqara]] [[File:Notifications-Talk-Indicator-OptionG-OBOD -Screenshot-Closeup-05-01-2013.png|thumb|right|I remember when I used to get these notifications... (2013)]] I've left an arrangement of random links for me to easily access if I so desire at any given time. # [[Help:Project boxes]] - For projects/pages. # [[Help:Quiz]] - This is also important. # [[Special:CentralAuth/Atcovi]] # [[:Category:Atcovi's Work]], [[User:Atcovi/Science]] & [[User:Atcovi/History]] # https://tools.wmflabs.org/meta/crossactivity/Atcovi # https://tools.wmflabs.org/topviews/?project=en.wikiversity.org&platform=all-access&date=yesterday&excludes= # <code><nowiki>{{under construction}}</nowiki></code> #[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychology_stubs Psychology stubs] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Health_stubs Health stubs] #[[User:Atcovi/Essays]] #[[:Category:Featured resources]] #[[Special:BrokenRedirects]] #[[:Category:Stub templates]] [[User:Atcovi/To merge]]: Pages needing to be merged<br> [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3APrefixIndex&prefix=User%3AAtcovi%2F&namespace=0 Pages under "User:Atcovi"]<br> {{Languages and skills|en-N|de-2}} {{User:Atcovi/to do}} == Wikiversity's To-do == {{Opentask}} [[File:Flagge Palaestina.jpg|350px|frameless|center]] [[Category:Wikiversity custodians]] [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]] [[Category:User pages]] [[Category:Atcovi's Work]] s0hyzhfiu5ncolft3qmjx93b32ucvrp 0 119778 2819471 2819217 2026-07-27T07:27:28Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2819471 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260723.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] irk10rzc2k64xstxfg4ub7llab5pqtk 0 121359 2819468 2819293 2026-07-27T04:43:46Z Young1lim 21186 /* Data */ 2819468 wikitext text/x-wiki <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> == Flip Flop and Latch == * FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]]) * Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Versions of VHDL == * VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]]) * VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]]) <br> == Basic Features of VHDL == ==== Data ==== * Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260727.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]]) * Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]]) * Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Signals & Variables ==== * Signals & Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]]) * Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]]) * Concurrent & Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Inertial & Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]]) * Simulation & Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Structure ==== * Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]]) * Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]]) * Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]]) </br> ==== Entity and Architecture ==== <br> ==== Block Statement ==== <br> ==== Process Statement ==== <br> ==== Operators ==== <br> ==== Assignment Statement ==== <br> ==== Concurrent Statement ==== <br> ==== Sequential Control Statement ==== <br> ==== Function ==== * Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]]) * Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]]) <br> ==== Procedure ==== <br> ==== Package ==== </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:VHDL]] [[Category:FPGA]] d67qmpwyqhj4ui62ao2cftw6rr8xi90 0 203942 2819465 2819126 2026-07-27T04:34:59Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2819465 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260727.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] o22ot8r54h7u1mfroo7vzgm8v1nize0 0 238339 2819483 2075889 2026-07-27T08:09:16Z Jtneill 10242 Adjust categories 2819483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Educational motivation in Indigenous Australians:<br>What are the key educational motivators for Indigenous Australians?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNuLuqVY5T0}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Catch a kid a fish you'll feed them for a day, however, teach that kid to fish you'll feed them for a lifetime (Ritchie, 1885) this famous concept resonates across many cultures including that of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians Aboriginal] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders Torres Strait Islanders]. More than 60,000 years of traditional knowledge has been passed down through Songline, dance and ceremony with culture at its intrinsic core, however, fundamentally Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were motivated to learn from it in order to survive. One of Australia’s ‘Close the Gap’ targets for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is to close the educational gap, however, the Australian curriculum revolves around the Western concept of Reading, Writing and Arithmetic at it's intrinsic motivational core. This knowledge is of course important to pass onto future generations, however, its useless if the audience is not intrinsically motivated to learn it. Lets face it, not every Australian is in the first place. Different communities have their own traditional knowledge systems which is fundamental to passing on learning so a place based approach to learning opposed to a national curriculum approach could be a good approach to engaging key educational motivators for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Andrew J. Martin in 2006 came up with an integrated framework designed to motivate Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. The framework focus's on 7 major themes being the self, cognitive and affective, failure dynamics, socialisation and child- rearing, pathways and transition, significant others and their contexts and contributions to general principles of behavior. == Indigenous education motivational framework == {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Martin's 7 major Indigenous educational motivator themes}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> :* The self :* Cognitive and affective :* Failure dynamics :* Socialisation and child rearing :* Pathways and transition :* Significant others and their contexts :* Contribution to general principles of behavior </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==== The self ==== To engage well with the education system, having [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]] coming from within the individual student to succeed is very important. If the individual 'wants' to do something intrinsically as opposed to 'having' to do something through [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Extrinsic_motivation|extrinsic motivation]] (or being told what to do), performance outcomes for the individual will increase. (Ryan & Deci, 2000) found that individuals with higher autonomy, competence and relatedness in the workplace performed much better than those who experienced lower. This in now commonly referred to as [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org Self-Determination Theory] (SDT) in Motivational Psychology. by instilling these same principles within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from a young age in the classroom, performance outcomes and school attendance, based on the evidence, should improve. When the teacher dictates the curriculum from the textbook, children (not just indigenous children) lose their sense of [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] and a sense of purpose to evolve their own unique critical thinking methods (Craven, Ryan, Mooney, Vallerand, Dillon, Blacklock, & Magson, 2016). Indigenous knowledge has at least 60,000 years of autonomously evolved learning which is so advanced for it's time and so practical when learnt in its context, to apply it into the national curriculum would be very difficult. Instead a focus on having every school in Australia approach their local Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander elders for advice on teaching traditional knowledge from a bottom up approach might be beneficial (Pascoe, 2014., Duncan, 2017). Indigenous learning should not only be celebrated, but embraced in the classroom and traditional knowledge taught on country in a culturally respectful way instils pride in all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students because their identity is being supported by the school (Martin, 2006). ==== Cognitive and affective ==== It’s really important Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students feel supported in their journey from important role models such as parents, teachers and influential indigenous leaders in the community (Martin., 2006). By modelling the success of what a good education can achieve for the individual, belief within is instilled and more engagement with the curriculum follows. Of course having an achievable curriculum is vitally important. In the year 2000 at the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics|Sydney Olympics]], [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathy_Freeman|Cathy Freeman]] famously won gold for Australia in the 400m Women’s track event. It was during her victory lap whereby she decided to wear the Aboriginal flag instead of the Australian flag that has made that victory so memorable for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Cathy Freeman has since used her status to set up a foundation for all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children called [https://www.cathyfreemanfoundation.org.au/ the Cathy Freeman Foundation] whereby the motto is “Education changes lives”. On such initiative the foundation offers is known as the Home Interaction Program for Parents and Youngsters (HIPPY) which aims to give Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander parents the right tools to instill confidence into their children so they are much more determined to take on their education journey. ==== Failure dynamics ==== In Australia, the teachers initial stereotype of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students is generally, one of low academic success (Dandy, Durkin, Barber, & Houghton, 2015). If educators keep this mindset within the classroom and when an Indigenous student inevitably gets something wrong (like all students do learning), less effort to understand the student’s problem from the educator is administered. This theory is also known as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy self-fulfilling prophecy] (Azariadis, 1981.) because afterall{{sp}}, why is it in the teachers best interest to help out the Indigenous kid who is struggling, they’re not going to perform well anyway. Of course this attitude with-in{{sp}} the classroom is not the majority of Australian teachers, however, understanding that if you are to underestimate an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander student based on racial stereotypes, it can have a profound impact on their learning outcomes (Dandy, Durkin, Barber, & Houghton, 2015). If an Indigenous student is performing well in the classroom, the self-fulfilling prophecy that the teacher holds of that student makes it less likely for them to reward such excellence than if they were of non-Indigenous background (Dandy, Durkin, Barber, & Houghton, 2015). Also, if an Indigenous student (like any student) gets a question wrong, being constructive with your criticism is vital (Martin., 2006). The concept of shame is experienced more from Indigenous students than non-Indigenous students (Dobia, & Roffey., 2017). On average, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students internalise failure more so than their non-Indigenous peers. In turn this leads to less participation within the classroom and also an internalised feeling of failure. By treating all students within the classroom as equal, regardless of their background, the environment leads itself less to shame and more towards discussion which inevitably produces more critical thinking (Dobia, & Roffey., 2017). ==== Socialisation and child rearing ==== It’s important that the home and community life of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students is positive (Martin., 2006). Albert Bandura in 1963 determined that behaviour modelled by adults was more likely to be emulated by observant children. This theory is known as social learning theory where originally children who observed adult behaviour towards objects would act out in the same way towards a Bobo Doll (Bandura., 1965). Theoretically, if children are witness to a positive environment at home where their adult role models are engaged, learning becomes vicariously rewarding for the child internally. Also Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in remote Australia grow up learning vicariously their own traditional language and culture (Kale, & Luke., 2017.). The motivational benefits of incorporating traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge into the Australian curriculum would benefit the social learning being done at home and in the community. To incorporate flexibility, knowing full well how diverse Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and language is (Nguyen, Oliver, & Rochecouste., 2015) and embracing this. Not all of Australia can read and write at the minimum standard required, but that should not be fixed, it should be celebrated. So many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in remote communities are having to learn English as a second, third, fourth etc. language, however, for them to achieve success in tertiary education they are required to write fluent English. Relaxing the requirements to allow Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole etc. throughout their educational career should be encouraged to increase their own worth and autonomy as academics (Nguyen, et al., 2015). ==== Pathways and transition ==== Understanding the student’s individual ability to achieve academic success, efficacy whilst also maintaining social and emotional well-being is crucial (Waldrip, Yu, & Prain., 2016.). More and more schools across Australia are beginning to take a more individual approach to learning. [http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cmd=displaySitePage1&subcmd=select&id=374 Personalised Learning Plan] help the teacher work closely with the parents and the student in order to get the best possible outcomes. In terms of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learning it is important that the teacher has a measurable tool to determine accurately whether there is a need for intervention if the student is falling behind (Martin, 2006). The [http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cmd=displaySitePage1&subcmd=select&id=374 Personalised Learning Plan] allows the teacher to determine if the parents and students’ educational requirements are not being met and also allows intervention to be culturally appropriate to ensure the social and emotional well-being of the student is maintained (Waldrip, Yu, & Prain., 2016.). ==== Significant others and their contexts ==== In order for teachers to become better role models of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, a greater emphasis on acknowledging the true history of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander history post colonisation should be adopted (Lowe, & Yunkaporta., 2013). Whilst Australia tries to Close the education Gap, it is the teachers who play a pivotal role in motivating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students to engage in the curriculum. By the teacher trying to understand some of the unique challenges experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people on a daily basis, a sense of trust is created and the teacher-student relationship is strengthened (Martin., 2006). ==== Contribution to general principles of behavior ==== Building up confidence for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children during their early schooling years gives them important behavioural learning tools later on in life (Munns, Martin, & Craven., 2008). Instead of focusing on how far the education gap is between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and Non-indigenous people is, there should be much more focus on the positives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. [https://www.dss.gov.au/about-the-department/publications-articles/research-publications/longitudinal-data-initiatives/footprints-in-time-the-longitudinal-study-of-indigenous-children-lsic Footprints in Time- the Logitudinal Study of Indigenous Children], is looking to determine how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children’s social and emotional well-being is impacted by their experiences with education (Salmon, Skelton, Thurber, Kneebone, Gosling, Lovett, & Walter., 2018). The longitudinal study is now in its eleventh year. By determining what works well for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people at a young age from a more holistic perspective, Australia’s education system can work very closely with the schools in order to adopt a culturally safe and engaging educational framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. ==Quiz== Time to test your learning of this content. Select 'one' answer from each of the 3 questions and click 'Submit' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}<quiz display=simple> {Which famous Aboriginal athlete has a foundation dedicated to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education?} - George Rose - Jason Gillespie - Nova Peris + Cathy Freeman - Anthony Mundine {Which of these is NOT an important component of Self-determination theory} - Relatedness + Willingness - Competence - Autonomy {The Bobo Doll experiment is infamous with?} - Self-determination theory - Self-fulfilling prophecy + Social learning theory - Social facilitation </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Aboriginal and Torres strait Islander student reading == In 2017, ACARA [https://acara.edu.au/curriculum (The Australian Curriculum assessment and reporting authority)] published data in relation to Australia's minimum standard of reading. the data determined that from 2008 to 2017, on average Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have improved their minimum standard of reading with the best improvements seen in year 3 (N=+14). it would be interesting to see whether over the next six years when the same students are in year nine, we have maintained the minimum standard of reading. the cohort showing the least improvement was Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students in year 9 who didn't improve on their score from 2008 (N=71). the biggest challenge will be keeping the students motivated into year 9 as this data shows that as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students get older, the Indigenous students reading at the national minimum standard decreases. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|14}}}|title=Table 1.}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> ''The proportions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students achieving at or above the national minimum standard of reading from 2008 to 2017 (ACARA, 2017).'' </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {| align=centre border=10 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=10 | style="background:#e4e4e4" | | style="background:#e4e4e4" | '''2008''' | style="background:#e4e4e4" |'''2017''' | style="background:#e4e4e4" |'''Difference''' |- | style="background:#e4e4e4" | '''Year 3''' | 68 | 82 | +14 |- | style="background:#e4e4e4" |'''Year 5''' | 63 | 76 | +13 |- | style="background:#e4e4e4" | '''Year 7''' | 72 | 74 | +2 |- | style="background:#e4e4e4" |'''Year 9''' | 71 | 71 | 0 |} == Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander student numeracy == In 2017, ACARA [https://acara.edu.au/curriculum (The Australian Curriculum assessment and reporting authority)] published data in relation to Australia's minimum standard of numeracy. Unlike ACARA's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander reading data, this shows that year 9 students have improved on their minimum standard scores since 2008 (N=+11). Across all cohorts at least 80% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students met the minimum standard of numeracy in 2017. The best percentage for numeracy scores were seen in the cohort in year 9 (N=84) {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Table 2.}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> ''The proportions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students achieving at or above the national minimum standard of numeracy from 2008 to 2017 (ACARA, 2017).'' </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {| align=centre border=10 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=10 |style="background:#ff9" | |style="background:#ff9" | '''2008''' |style="background:#ff9" | '''2017''' |style="background:#ff9" | '''Difference''' |- |style="background:#ff9" | '''Year 3''' | 79 | 82 | +3 |- |style="background:#ff9" | '''Year 5''' | 69 | 80 | +11 |- |style="background:#ff9" | '''Year 7''' | 79 | 80 | +1 |- |style="background:#ff9" | '''Year 9''' | 73 | 84 | +11 |} == Are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth currently satisfied with the curriculum? == Of course administrative data is important on determining if Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are going well in reading at maths, however, it does not tell us much about their intrinsic motivation with the curriculum. in 2017, Mission Australia conducted a survey which asked the youth of Australia (15-19 year olds, N= 24,055) their own satisfaction with their studies. Of the 24,055 youth, 1265 (5.3%) were Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. 70.4% of non-Indigenous respondents reported being satisfied or very satisfied compared with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander respondents reporting a 58.6% satisfied or very satisfied rate. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders reported being dissatisfied or very dissatisfied (N=13.1%) more so than non-Indigenous youth (N=6.7%). Of course satisfaction and motivation are different, however, it is interesting to look at the subjective data of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth of today and get an insight into what their opinions are of the current curriculum. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|4}}}|title=Table 3.}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> ''2017 self-reported satisfaction of 15-19 year olds with their studies in Australia (Mission Australia, 2017).'' </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {| align=centre border=10 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=10 | style="background:LightCoral" | | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Non-Indigenous respondents %''' | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander respondents %''' | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females %''' | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males %''' |- | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Very satisfied''' | 13.5 | 9.6 | 7.4 | 11.1 |- | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Satisfied''' | 56.9 | 49.0 | 54.9 | 48.9 |- | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied''' | 22.9 | 28.2 | 28.8 | 27.3 |- | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Dissatisfied''' | 5.3 | 7.3 | 6.1 | 8.1 |- | style="background:LightCoral" | '''Very dissatisfied''' | 1.4 | 5.8 | 2.8 | 4.6 |} == Barriers to educational motivators == {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|7}}}|title=Factors affecting school attendance and engagement. ''(De Bortoli, & Thomson., 2010).''}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> :* Students’ previous negative experiences with school :* Poor teacher–student relationships :* No sense of belonging in a classroom :* Alienation from school :* Language barriers :* Racism :* Poor self perception of academic ability :* Poor transitions from primary to secondary school :* Earlier lack of educational success </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educational motivators go back 60,000 plus years and only in the last 240 years has motivation been shifted more towards the ability to read and write. Instead of the question being "how do we get Indigenous kids motivated in the education system?" the question should more so be "why should Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples be motivated in the education system?" Only now is the curriculum starting to change and focus more on being more culturally inclusive. During the 90's going to primary school in Sydney, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students were taken on excursions to a statue of Captain Cook at Kurnell or Old Sydney Town to be taught history. What intrinsic motivation is in that? Where is the sense of pride in identity that should come with learning history? It's good to see researchers like (Martin., 2006) trying to put the onus back on the school to understand what motivates Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students as opposed to just dictating a curriculum and blaming the individual for showing a lack of interest at school. Schools that provide an environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to learn with a sense of autonomy and purpose can really get the most out of motivation to learn. By having confidence to participate in classroom discussions and knowing that if they do make a mistake they won't be judged harshly, goes a real long way to empowering Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to learn. Only now is the literature starting to focus on the positives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and as a result, basic reading and numeracy scores have generally improved over the last decade (ACARA., 2017). Now is the time however, to listen to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students being studied. Survey data whereby we are gathering the subjective opinions in terms of how they think the curriculum should be really needs to be looked at more. Mission Australia's annual youth survey and Footprints in Time: The Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children do a good job of capturing this data. Having a framework that can be adapted to meet Urban, Regional and Remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander motivational needs is also important. The difference in context of an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander going to school in Sydney as opposed to Kununurra is going to be a completely different learned experience. An approach towards Personalised Learning Plans in order to meet the family and student needs is a great way to address this issue and also goes a long way to finding out just exactly what are the educational motivators of each unique Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. ==See also== * https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Adolescent_educational_motivation ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Azariadis, C. (1981). Self-fulfilling prophecies. Journal of Economic Theory, 25(3), 380-396. Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models' reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of personality and social psychology, 1(6), 589. Carlisle, E., Fildes, J., Liyanarachchi, D., Perrens, B. and Plummer, J. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Report, Youth Survey 2017, Mission Australia. Craven, R. G., Ryan, R. M., Mooney, J., Vallerand, R. J., Dillon, A., Blacklock, F., & Magson, N. (2016). Toward a positive psychology of indigenous thriving and reciprocal research partnership model. Contemporary educational psychology, 47, 32-43. Dandy, J., Durkin, K., Barber, B. L., & Houghton, S. (2015). Academic expectations of Australian students from Aboriginal, Asian and Anglo backgrounds: perspectives of teachers, trainee-teachers and students. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 62(1), 60-82. De Bortoli, L., & Thomson, S. (2010). Contextual factors that influence the achievement of Australia's Indigenous students: Results from PISA 2000-2006. OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 7. Dobia, B., & Roffey, S. (2017). Respect for Culture—Social and Emotional Learning with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth. In Social and Emotional Learning in Australia and the Asia-Pacific (pp. 313-334). Springer, Singapore. Duncan, A. (2017). Reconciliation action plans: Including children's voices. Every Child, 23(3), 6. Kale, J., & Luke, A. (2017). Learning through difference: Cultural practices in early childhood language socialisation. In One child, many worlds (pp. 11-29). Routledge. Lowe, K., & Yunkaporta, T. (2013). The inclusion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander content in the Australian National Curriculum: A cultural, cognitive and socio-political evaluation. Curriculum Perspectives, 33(1), 1-14. Martin, A. J. (2006). A motivational psychology for the education of Indigenous Australian students. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 35, 30-43. Munns, G., Martin, A., & Craven, R. (2008). To free the spirit? Motivation and engagement of Indigenous students. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 37(1), 98-107. Nguyen, B., Oliver, R., & Rochecouste, J. (2015). Embracing plurality through oral language. Language and Education, 29(2), 97-111. Pascoe, B. (2014). Dark Emu Black Seeds: Agriculture Or Accident?. Magabala Books. Ritchie, A. T. (1885). ''Mrs. Dymond'' (Vol. 10). Smith, Elder. Salmon, M., Skelton, F., Thurber, K. A., Kneebone, L. B., Gosling, J., Lovett, R., & Walter, M. (2018). Intergenerational and early life influences on the well-being of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children: overview and selected findings from Footprints in Time, the Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children. Journal of developmental origins of health and disease, 1-7. Waldrip, B., Yu, J. J., & Prain, V. (2016). Validation of a model of personalised learning. Learning Environments Research, 19(2), 169-180. }} ==External links== * [https://acara.edu.au/curriculum (The Australian Curriculum assessment and reporting authority)] * https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/australian-journal-of-indigenous-education/article/motivational-psychology-for-the-education-of-indigenous-australian-students/2F7B90427D9EE802F7F4BA230EDF2736 * https://www.cathyfreemanfoundation.org.au/ * https://closingthegap.pmc.gov.au/education * [https://www.dss.gov.au/about-the-department/publications-articles/research-publications/longitudinal-data-initiatives/footprints-in-time-the-longitudinal-study-of-indigenous-children-lsic Footprints in Time- the Logitudinal Study of Indigenous Children] * https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&amp=&context=indigenous_education&amp=&sei- * [http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cmd=displaySitePage1&subcmd=select&id=374 Personalised Learning Plan] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Indigenous/Australian]] dvlbyfiwu4671aqqih6sshy6w4c9g3c 2 246801 2819505 2817955 2026-07-27T11:24:05Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2819505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''The mathematical electron model''' In the mathematical electron model <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>, the electron is a geometrical object denoted by the formula (ψ), itself the geometry of 3 numbers; the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), a mathematical constant Omega, and pi (Omega itself is a construct of pi and Euler's number [[w:E_(mathematical_constant) |e]] = 2.718281828459). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha^{-1} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453... \times 10^{23},\;unit = 1</math> (unit-less) :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.0071349543... </math> Although dimensionless, this formula ψ encodes the information required to make the physical electron parameters (wavelength, frequency, mass, charge). It does this by embedding within its own geometry objects for [[w:Planck_units |Planck units]] analogues; M for mass <math>m_P</math>, L for length <math>l_p</math>, T for time <math>t_p</math> and A for charge <math>A</math>, and ψ also dictates the frequency of these geometrical (Planck) objects. For example; [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] :<math>\lambda_e = 2\pi l_p \psi</math> [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] :<math>m_e = \frac{m_P}{\psi}</math> === Geometrical objects MLTA === {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)}} The base MLTA units :<math>j = \frac{m^{15/4}}{kg^{9/4} s^{11/4}} = 1</math> :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Geometrical objects (reference table) ! Attribute ! Formula ! Object ! Scalars ! Numerical ! <math>\theta</math> ! [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Dimensionless_f(x) |Units*]] |- | M (mass) | <math></math> | <math>(1)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^4}{v}</math> | 0.217672825e-7 | <math>u^{15}</math> | <math>kg</math> |- | T (time) | <math></math> | <math>(\pi)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^6}\;j</math> | 0.539051838e-43 | <math>u^{-30}</math> | <math>s</math> |- | P (sqrt of momentum) | <math>\Omega \; M^{(4/5)} \;\left({\dfrac{\pi}{T}}\right)^{(2/15)}</math> | <math>(\Omega)</math> | <math>r^2</math> | 1.019113428 | <math>u^{16}</math> | <math>\sqrt{\frac{kg\;m}{s}}</math> |- | V (velocity) | <math>\dfrac{2\pi P^2}{M}</math> | <math>(2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>v</math> | 299792458 | <math>u^{17}</math> | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | L (length) | <math>VT </math> | <math>(2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^5}\;j</math> | 0.161603675e-34 | <math>u^{-13}</math> | <math>m</math> |- | A (ampere) | <math>\dfrac{2^4 V^3 \alpha}{P^3}</math> | <math>(2^7\pi^3 \alpha \Omega^3)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^3}{r^6}</math> | 0.297221257e25 | <math>u^{3}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{3/2}}{kg^{3/2} s^{3/2}}</math> |- | K (temperature) | <math>\dfrac{AV}{2\pi}</math> | <math>(2^7 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^4}{r^6}</math> | 0.141814520e33 | <math>u^{20}</math> | <math>\left(\frac{A \; m}{s}\right)</math> |} === Scalars === As alpha and Omega can be assigned numerical values, so too the MLTA objects can be expressed numerically. We can then convert these objects to their Planck unit equivalents by including a dimensioned scalar. For example; :If we use scalar ''k''_SI to convert ''M'' (M=1) to the SI Planck mass (M*''k''_SI = <math>m_P</math>), then ''k''_SI = 0.2176728e-7kg ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :SI ''c'' = object V * scalar ''v''_SI = 299792458m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :Imperial ''c'' = object V * scalar ''v''_imp = 186282miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) ==== Scalar relationships ==== Scalars that translate to the SI unit system must therefore carry not only the numerical conversion values but also the unit (for scalars we will refer to the SI unit system by default), i.e.: scalar ''v'' = 11843707.905 m/s. This also means that the scalars must also follow the unit number relationship θ. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit ''u''^θ |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' | <math>u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' | <math>u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | ''r''² | <math>u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' | <math>u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' | <math>u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | ''q'' | <math>u^3</math> |} Here are examples where units = 1, as such ''only 2 scalars are required'', for example, if we know the numerical value for ''q'' and for ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'' ('''t = q³l³'''), and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know the value for ''k''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{q^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> In other words, once any 2 scalars have been assigned values, the other scalars are then defined by default, consequently the CODATA 2014 values are used here as only 2 constants (c, [[w:permeability of vacuum|μ₀]]) are assigned exact values, following the [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]] a total of 4 constants now have independently exact values assigned which is problematic in terms of this model. Scalars ''r'' (θ = 8) and ''v'' (θ = 17) are chosen here for demonstration as they can be derived directly from the 2 constants with exact values; ''c'' and ''μ₀''. :<math>c = 299792458</math> m/s :<math>\mu_0 = 4\pi / 10^7</math> :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{a};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | 16 | <math>r^2</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | <math>v</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>\frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} === Mathematical electron === The mathematical electron formula ψ incorporates the dimensioned Planck units but itself is dimension-less (units = scalars = 1). Here ψ is defined in terms of ''σ_e'', where AL is an ampere-meter (ampere-length = ''e*c'' are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]). :<math>T = \pi,\; unit = u^{-30},\;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; unit = u^{(3 \;-13 \;= \;-10)},\; scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23},\;unit = 1</math> (unit-less) Both units and scalars cancel. ===== Electron parameters ===== We can solve the electron parameters; electron mass, wavelength, frequency, charge ... as the frequency of the Planck units themselves, and this frequency is ψ. :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] λ_e = 2.4263102367e-12m (CODATA 2014) :<math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> = 2.4263102386e-12m (L ⇔ [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]) [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] m_e = 9.10938356e-31kg (CODATA 2014) :<math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> = 9.1093823211e-31kg (M ⇔ [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] e = 1.6021766208e-19C (CODATA 2014) :<math>e^* = A\;T</math> = 1.6021765130e-19 (T ⇔ [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] R = 10973731.568508/m (CODATA 2014) :<math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha_{inv}^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha_{inv}^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> = 10973731.568508 From the above formulas, we see that wavelength is ψ units of Planck length, frequency is ψ units of Planck time ... however the electron mass is only 1 unit of Planck mass. ===== Electron Mass ===== Particle mass is a unit of Planck mass that occurs only once per ψ units of Planck time, the other parameters are continuums of the Planck units. :units <math>\psi = \frac{(AL)^3}{T}</math> = 1 This may be interpreted as; for ψ units of Planck time the electron has wavelength L, charge A ... and then the AL combine with time T (A³L³/T) and the units (and scalars) cancel. The electron is now mass (for 1 unit of Planck time). In this consideration, the electron is an event that oscillates over time between an electric wave state (duration ψ units of Planck time) to a unit of Planck mass point state (1 unit of Planck time). The electron is a quantum scale event, it does not exist at the discrete Planck scale (and so therefore neither does the quantum scale). As electron mass is the frequency of the geometrical Planck mass M = 1, which is a point (and so with point co-ordinates), then we have a model for a [[w:black hole electron |black-hole electron]], the electron function ψ centered around this unit of Planck mass. When the wave-state (A*L)³/T units collapse, this black-hole center (point) is exposed for 1 unit of (Planck) time. The electron is 'now' (a unit of Planck) mass. Mass in this consideration is not a constant property of the particle, rather the measured particle mass ''m'' would refer to the average mass, the average occurrence of the discrete Planck mass point-state over time. The formula ''E = hf'' is a measure of the frequency ''f'' of occurrence of [[w:Planck constant |Planck's constant ''h'']] and applies to the electric wave-state. As for each wave-state there is a corresponding mass point-state, then for a particle ''hf == mc2''. Notably however the ''c'' term is a fixed constant unlike the ''f'' term, and so the ''m'' term is the frequency term, it is referring to an average mass (mass which is measured over time) rather than a constant mass (mass as a constant property of the particle at unit Planck time). Thus as noted, when we refer to mass as a constant property, we are referring to average mass at the quantum scale, and the electron as a quantum-state particle. If the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding |scaffolding of the universe]] includes units of Planck mass '''M''', then it is not necessary for a particle itself to have mass, what we define as electron mass could be the absence of electron <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title= 1. Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3333513}}</ref>. ===== Quarks and Spin===== The charge on the electron derives from the embedded ampere A and length L, the electron formula ψ itself is dimensionless. These AL magnetic monopoles would seem to be analogous to quarks (there are 3 monopoles per electron), but due to the symmetry and so stability of the geometrical ψ there is no clear fracture point by which an electron could decay, and so this would be difficult to test. We can however conjecture on what a quark solution might look like, the advantage with this approach being that we do not need to introduce new 'entities' for our quarks, the Planck units embedded within the electron suffice <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 7. Geometric Origin of Quarks and Spin, the Mathematical Electron extended |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.21695.16808/1 }}</ref>. ====== Quarks====== Electron formula :<math>\psi = 2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = 1, scalars = 1</math> Time :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> AL magnetic monopole :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; u^{-10}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> If <math>\sigma_{e}</math> could equate to a quark with an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of {{sfrac|-1|3}}[[w:elementary charge|''e'']], then it would be an analogue of the '''D''' quark. 3 of these D quarks would constitute the electron as DDD = (AL)*(AL)*(AL). We would assume that the charge on the [[w:positron |positron]] (anti-matter electron) is just the inverse of the above, however there is 1 problem, the AL (A; θ=3, L; θ=-13) units = -10, and if we look at the [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Table_of_Constants |table of constants]], there is no 'units = +10' combination that can include A. We cannot make an inverse electron. However we can make a [[w:Planck temperature|Planck temperature T_p]] AV ''monopole'' (ampere-velocity). :<math>T_p = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha_{inv}},\; u^{20}, \;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>\sigma_{t} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 T_p}{2\pi} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A V}{2\pi^2} = ({2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5}),\; u^{20},\;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}</math> :<math>\psi = (2T) \sigma_{t}^2 \sigma_{e} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = (u^{-30}) (u^{20})^2 (u^{-10}) = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) (\frac{v^4}{r^6})^2 \frac{r^3}{v^2} = 1</math> The units for <math>\sigma_{t}</math> = +20, and so if units = -10 equates to {{sfrac|-1|3}}e, then we may conjecture that units = +20 equates to {{sfrac|2|3}}e, which would be the analogue of the '''U''' quark. Our plus charge now becomes DUU, and so although the positron has the same wavelength, frequency, mass and charge magnitude as the electron (both solve to ψ), internally its charge structure resembles that of the proton, the positron is not simply an inverse of the electron. This could have implications for the missing anti-matter, and for why the charge magnitude of the proton is ''exactly'' the charge magnitude of the electron. :<math>D = \sigma_{e},\; unit = u^{-10},\; charge = \frac{-1e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> :<math>U = \sigma_{t},\; unit = u^{20},\; charge = \frac{2e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}</math> Numerically: Adding a proton and electron gives (proton) UUD & DDD (electron) = 2(UDD) = 20 -10 -10 = 0 (zero charge), scalars = 0. Converting between U and D via U & DDD (electron) = 20 -10 -10 -10 = -10 (D), scalars = <math>\frac{r^3}{v^2}</math> ====== Spin ====== [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity |Relativity at the Planck scale]] can be described by a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems; an expanding (in Planck steps at the speed of light) 4-axis hyper-sphere projecting onto a 3-D space <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282 }}</ref>. In this scenario, particles (with mass) are pulled along by the expansion of the hyper-sphere, this then requires particles to have an axis; generically labeled N-S, with the N denoting the direction of particle travel within the hyper-sphere. Changing the direction of travel involves changing the orientation of the particle N-S axis. We can link that external N--S axis to the internal monopole (DDD) geometry, and from this show how the three internal phases produce the spin-½ transformation law under spatial rotations about the N-S direction <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 7. Geometric Origin of Quarks and Spin, the Mathematical Electron extended |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.21695.16808/1 }}</ref>. ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===The 3 levels=== A model overview from the sub Planck scale to the container universe * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 Planck unit scaffolding to Cosmic Microwave Background correlation]]: Part 1. The Cosmological scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283/1 The Minimal Complexity Algorithm of the Planck Scaffolding]]: Part 2. The sub-Planck scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200/1 The Heavens and the Free Will postulate]]: Part 3. The Heavens (the container universe) ===Wiki series=== Introductions to principle concepts (for more complete discussion see General articles) * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== The following are HTML transcripts of journal articles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue == External links == * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) * [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/ The Matrix, (1999)] * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras "all is number"] - Stanford University * [[w:Simulation Hypothesis | Simulation Hypothesis]] * [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]] * [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]] * [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ qmxirqnmk0ta2waf4zexzdsews3n6uo 2 250295 2819491 2819343 2026-07-27T10:48:55Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2819491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} In the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> model, the [[w:Planck units |Planck units]] are assigned geometrical objects, themselves the geometry of alpha (the [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']]) and 2 mathematical constants; Omega and pi. These geometrical objects (mass M = 1, time T = π, P = Ω ...) embed their unit function (the geometry of the length object L embeds the function length and so on ...). By converting the physical constants (''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''_e ...) also to geometrical forms, and as these forms are also the geometry of alpha and Omega, then we can reverse engineer them and find a solution for alpha. Using CODATA 2014 the best fit alpha = 1/137.0359931388... :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> :<math>i = \Omega^{15}</math> :<math>x = \frac{i\;u^{15}\; r^4}{v}</math> :<math>y = \frac{i^{-2}\; u^{-30}\; r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>j = \frac{m^{15/4}}{kg^{9/4} s^{11/4}} = 1</math> :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Geometrical objects (reference table) ! Attribute ! Formula ! Object ! Scalars ! Numerical ! <math>\theta</math> ! [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Dimensionless_f(x) |Units*]] |- | M (mass) | <math>(1) x i^{-1}</math> | <math>(1)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^4}{v}</math> | 0.217672825e-7 | <math>u^{15}</math> | <math>kg</math> |- | T (time) | <math>(\pi) y i^{2}</math> | <math>(\pi)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^6}\;j</math> | 0.539051838e-43 | <math>u^{-30}</math> | <math>s</math> |- | P (sqrt of momentum) | <math>M^{(4/5)} \;\left({\dfrac{\pi}{T}}\right)^{(2/15)} \;i</math> | <math>(\Omega)</math> | <math>r^2</math> | 1.019113428 | <math>u^{16}</math> | <math>\sqrt{\frac{kg\;m}{s}}</math> |- | V (velocity) | <math>\dfrac{2\pi P^2}{M}</math> | <math>(2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>v</math> | 299792458 | <math>u^{17}</math> | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | L (length) | <math>VT </math> | <math>(2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^5}\;j</math> | 0.161603675e-34 | <math>u^{-13}</math> | <math>m</math> |- | A (ampere) | <math>\dfrac{2^4 V^3 \alpha}{P^3}</math> | <math>(2^7\pi^3 \alpha \Omega^3)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^3}{r^6}</math> | 0.297221257e25 | <math>u^{3}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{3/2}}{kg^{3/2} s^{3/2}}</math> |- | K (temperature) | <math>\dfrac{AV}{2\pi}</math> | <math>(2^7 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^4}{r^6}</math> | 0.141814520e33 | <math>u^{20}</math> | <math>\left(\frac{A \; m}{s}\right)</math> |} ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===The 3 levels=== A model overview from the sub Planck scale to the container universe * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 Planck unit scaffolding to Cosmic Microwave Background correlation]]: Part 1. The Cosmological scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283/1 The Minimal Complexity Algorithm of the Planck Scaffolding]]: Part 2. The sub-Planck scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200/1 The Heavens and the Free Will postulate]]: Part 3. The Heavens (the container universe) ===Wiki series=== Introductions to principle concepts (for more complete discussion see General articles) * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== The following are HTML transcripts of journal articles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Physics| ]] [[Category:Philosophy of science| ]] 4d8j43ttofgif9339a5b7soypxawhsr 2819502 2819491 2026-07-27T11:16:02Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2819502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} In the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> model, the [[w:Planck units |Planck units]] are assigned geometrical objects, themselves the geometry of alpha (the [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']]) and 2 mathematical constants; Omega and pi. These geometrical objects (mass M = 1, time T = π, P = Ω ...) embed their unit function (the geometry of the length object L embeds the function length and so on ...). By converting the physical constants (''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''_e ...) also to geometrical forms, and as these forms are also the geometry of alpha and Omega, then we can reverse engineer them and find a solution for alpha. Using CODATA 2014 the best fit alpha = 1/137.0359931388... :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> :<math>j = \frac{m^{15/4}}{kg^{9/4} s^{11/4}} = 1</math> :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Geometrical objects (reference table) ! Attribute ! Formula ! Object ! Scalars ! Numerical ! <math>\theta</math> ! [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Dimensionless_f(x) |Units*]] |- | M (mass) | <math></math> | <math>(1)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^4}{v}</math> | 0.217672825e-7 | <math>u^{15}</math> | <math>kg</math> |- | T (time) | <math></math> | <math>(\pi)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^6}\;j</math> | 0.539051838e-43 | <math>u^{-30}</math> | <math>s</math> |- | P (sqrt of momentum) | <math>\Omega \; M^{(4/5)} \;\left({\dfrac{\pi}{T}}\right)^{(2/15)}</math> | <math>(\Omega)</math> | <math>r^2</math> | 1.019113428 | <math>u^{16}</math> | <math>\sqrt{\frac{kg\;m}{s}}</math> |- | V (velocity) | <math>\dfrac{2\pi P^2}{M}</math> | <math>(2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>v</math> | 299792458 | <math>u^{17}</math> | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | L (length) | <math>VT </math> | <math>(2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^5}\;j</math> | 0.161603675e-34 | <math>u^{-13}</math> | <math>m</math> |- | A (ampere) | <math>\dfrac{2^4 V^3 \alpha}{P^3}</math> | <math>(2^7\pi^3 \alpha \Omega^3)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^3}{r^6}</math> | 0.297221257e25 | <math>u^{3}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{3/2}}{kg^{3/2} s^{3/2}}</math> |- | K (temperature) | <math>\dfrac{AV}{2\pi}</math> | <math>(2^7 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^4}{r^6}</math> | 0.141814520e33 | <math>u^{20}</math> | <math>\left(\frac{A \; m}{s}\right)</math> |} ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===The 3 levels=== A model overview from the sub Planck scale to the container universe * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 Planck unit scaffolding to Cosmic Microwave Background correlation]]: Part 1. The Cosmological scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283/1 The Minimal Complexity Algorithm of the Planck Scaffolding]]: Part 2. The sub-Planck scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200/1 The Heavens and the Free Will postulate]]: Part 3. The Heavens (the container universe) ===Wiki series=== Introductions to principle concepts (for more complete discussion see General articles) * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== The following are HTML transcripts of journal articles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Physics| ]] [[Category:Philosophy of science| ]] oufz7bhrujglih9ocmxk0dvcr21jwpp 2 266515 2819435 2819130 2026-07-26T12:51:39Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Project: African Arthropods */ 2819435 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--Info--> https://www.archive.org {{list subpages|Alandmanson|User}} ===[[African Arthropods|Project: African Arthropods]]=== ;[[African Arthropods/Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] :Arachnids and sea spiders — No sub-pages yet. ;[[African Arthropods/Crustaceans|African Crustaceans]] :Including branchiopods, barnacles, crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, fish lice, tongue worms, and ostracods — No sub-pages yet. ;[[African Arthropods/Hexapods|African Hexapods]] :[[African Arthropods/Insects|African Insects]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Diptera|Diptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Acalyptrate flies|Acalyptrate flies]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera|Hymenoptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Chalcidoidea|African Chalcidoidea]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eulophidae|African Eulophidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Encyrtidae|African Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Afrotropical Encyrtidae Key|Key to the genera of Afrotropical Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Chalcid wasps with branched antennae|African chalcid wasps with branched antennae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Wasps associated with plant galls|Wasps associated with plant galls]] :**[[African Arthropods/Diaprioidea|African Diaprioidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Platygastroidea|African Platygastroidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Aculeata|African Aculeata]] :***[[African Arthropods/Apoidea|African Apoidea]] :****[[African Arthropods/Ampulicidae|African Ampulicidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|African Crabronidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Sphecidae|African Sphecidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pemphredonidae|African Pemphredonidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Philanthidae|African Philanthidae]] :*****[[African Arthropods/Philanthus|South African species of Philanthus]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eumeninae|African potter wasps]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]]''' ;[[African Arthropods/Myriapods|African Myriapods]] :Centipedes, Millipedes, Pauropodans, Symphylans — No sub-pages yet.<br><br> ;Arthropods in South Africa :[[African Arthropods/Ferncliffe Nature Reserve|Ferncliffe Nature Reserve]] :[[African Arthropods/Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei''|Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei'']] :[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera of South Africa|Hymenoptera of South Africa]] :[[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] :[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] ::[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] ::[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with dark, blackish wings|Pompilidae of South Africa with dark, blackish wings]] <br> ===To Do=== Working on: [[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of Africa]] Microgastrine cocoons in a net: <br> * http://www.waspweb.org/Chalcidoidea/Eupelmidae/Eupelminae/Eupelmus/Eupelmus/Eupelmus_species_2.htm * https://www.waspweb.org/Ichneumonoidea/Braconidae/Microgastrinae/Glyptapanteles/Glyptapanteles_acraeae.htm * https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microgastrinae_cocooncocoon_iNat_42943906.jpg * https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/38150348 * https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/144355729 * https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/39807090 * https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/145817446<br> [[Crop_production_in_KwaZulu-Natal|Project: Crop_production_in_KwaZulu-Natal]] [[Crop production in KwaZulu-Natal Annotated Bibliography]] [[Information for smallholders in KwaZulu-Natal]] [[Crop_production_in_KwaZulu-Natal/Climate-smart_Agriculture|Climate-smart Agriculture in KZN]] [[Plant propagation]]<br> <br> [[Animal Phyla/Arthropoda]]<br> [[:Category:Animals]]<br> [[:Category:Zoology]]<br> [[:Category:Entomology]] bsxr6m5wy2rgg4vbefoh6trbr1v5rh5 2 266516 2819421 2819363 2026-07-26T12:13:51Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Rough guide to Liris species of South Africa */ 2819421 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--Info--> == Rough guide to Liris species of South Africa == === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black. Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour, somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> = Pompilidae of South Africa = == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg </gallery> *The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent. * <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) == *The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus'' Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus'' Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex'' Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg| Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp. </gallery> <br> === Species with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen === Some parts may be brown. *''Java atropos'' *''Cyphononyx obscurus'' *''Hemipepsis vindex'' *''Hemipepsis vespertilio'' *''Hemipepsis braunsi'' *''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' <br> === Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red === *''Cyphononyx optimus'' *''Paracyphononyx zonatus'' <br> <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg </gallery> *With fuscous (darker) wing apex *One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated) *Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted) <br> == South African Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020] *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa) **''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) **''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) **= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319 *''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) <br> ==Afrotropical Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).<ref name=Madl2020>Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84. [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]</ref> Ceropalinae can be defined by:<ref name=Brothers1993>Brothers, D. J. & Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. & Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143</ref><ref name=Waichert2015> Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., & Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]</ref> == Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae == This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa & Schmid-Egger, 2025)<ref name=CoL2025> Kroupa, A. S., & Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv </ref> and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].<br> === Genus ''Ceropales'' === *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia) *''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia) *''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone) *''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal) *''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania) *''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo) *''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal) **''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) *''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea) *''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel) *''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania) **''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo) *''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia) <br> === Genus ''Irenangelus'' === *''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar) <br> ==Eumeninae== Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:<br> ''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)<br> ''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)<br> ==Ants== '''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)''' Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23) Amblyoponinae 7 Dolichoderinae 630 Dorylinae 1 167 Formicinae 10 396 Camponotus 6 090; Lepisiota 1 046 Myrmicinae 8 484 Crematogaster 1 786; Pheidole 1 468; Messor 1 156 Ponerinae 1 623 Proceratiinae 3 Pseudomyrmecinae 296 Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' <br> Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' <br> Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera <br> Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' <br> Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera<br> Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera<br> Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' <br> Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera<br> Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' <br> Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera <br> Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera <br> Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera <br> Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera <br> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae </gallery> == N-P interactions == Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770. '''Abstract''' Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective. ==Diptera== ===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies=== ====Food detection==== *''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392 *It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage ====Courtship==== *Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage *''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays. **https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062 *Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata'' **https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x ====Mimics for defense==== *Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae. **https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ *Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging. **https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612 *Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895<br> <br> ===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families=== The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:<br> * '''Carnoidea''' ** Acartophthalmidae 0 ** Australimyzidae 0 ** Braulidae (bee lice) 1 ** Canacidae (beach flies) 3 ** Carnidae (bird flies) 0 ** Chloropidae (frit flies) 259 ** Cryptochetidae 1 ** Inbiomyiidae 0 ** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158 <br> * '''Diopsoidea''' ** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies) 545 ** Gobryidae 0 ** Megamerinidae 0 ** Nothybidae 0 ** Psilidae (rust flies) 29 ** Somatiidae 0 ** Syringogastridae 0 <br> * '''Ephydroidea''' ** Camillidae 0 ** Campichoetidae 0 ** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies) 15 ** Diastatidae 0 ** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312 ** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117 <br> * '''Lauxanioidea''' ** Celyphidae (beetle flies) 0 ** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies) 24 ** Cremifaniidae 0 ** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies) 710 <br> * '''Nerioidea''' ** Cypselosomatidae 0 ** Fergusoninidae 0 ** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies) 245 ** Neriidae 109 ** Strongylophthalmyiidae 0 ** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies) 0 <br> * '''Opomyzoidea''' ** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161 ** Anthomyzidae 3 ** Asteiidae 4 ** Aulacigastridae 2 ** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2 ** Marginidae 0 ** Neminidae 0 ** Neurochaetidae 0 ** Odiniidae 0 ** Opomyzidae 4 ** Periscelididae 1 ** Teratomyzidae 0 ** Xenasteiidae 0 <br> * '''Sciomyzoidea''' ** Coelopidae (kelp flies) 51 ** Conopidae (thick-headed flies) 192 ** Dryomyzidae 1 ** Helcomyzidae 0 ** Helosciomyzidae 0 ** Heterocheilidae 0 ** Huttoninidae 0 ** Natalimyzidae 0 ** Phaeomyiidae 0 ** Ropalomeridae 1 ** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies) 67 ** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies) 269 <br> * '''Sphaeroceroidea''' ** Chyromyidae (golden flies) 19 ** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies) 151 ** Nannodastiidae 0 ** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies) 48 <br> * '''Tephritoidea''' ** Ctenostylidae 1 ** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47 ** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies) 5 ** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1 ** Platystomatidae (signal flies) 683 ** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies) 119 ** Richardiidae 0 ** Tachiniscidae 2 ** Tephritidae (fruit flies) 1,759 ** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165 == References == r70n1rm7oufnxjth6bq8yp65kard83y 2819422 2819421 2026-07-26T12:16:48Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin */ 2819422 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--Info--> == Rough guide to Liris species of South Africa == === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> = Pompilidae of South Africa = == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg </gallery> *The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent. * <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) == *The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus'' Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus'' Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex'' Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg| Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp. </gallery> <br> === Species with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen === Some parts may be brown. *''Java atropos'' *''Cyphononyx obscurus'' *''Hemipepsis vindex'' *''Hemipepsis vespertilio'' *''Hemipepsis braunsi'' *''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' <br> === Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red === *''Cyphononyx optimus'' *''Paracyphononyx zonatus'' <br> <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg </gallery> *With fuscous (darker) wing apex *One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated) *Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted) <br> == South African Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020] *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa) **''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) **''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) **= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319 *''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) <br> ==Afrotropical Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).<ref name=Madl2020>Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84. [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]</ref> Ceropalinae can be defined by:<ref name=Brothers1993>Brothers, D. J. & Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. & Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143</ref><ref name=Waichert2015> Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., & Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]</ref> == Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae == This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa & Schmid-Egger, 2025)<ref name=CoL2025> Kroupa, A. S., & Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv </ref> and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].<br> === Genus ''Ceropales'' === *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia) *''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia) *''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone) *''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal) *''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania) *''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo) *''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal) **''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) *''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea) *''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel) *''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania) **''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo) *''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia) <br> === Genus ''Irenangelus'' === *''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar) <br> ==Eumeninae== Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:<br> ''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)<br> ''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)<br> ==Ants== '''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)''' Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23) Amblyoponinae 7 Dolichoderinae 630 Dorylinae 1 167 Formicinae 10 396 Camponotus 6 090; Lepisiota 1 046 Myrmicinae 8 484 Crematogaster 1 786; Pheidole 1 468; Messor 1 156 Ponerinae 1 623 Proceratiinae 3 Pseudomyrmecinae 296 Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' <br> Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' <br> Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera <br> Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' <br> Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera<br> Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera<br> Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' <br> Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera<br> Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' <br> Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera <br> Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera <br> Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera <br> Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera <br> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae </gallery> == N-P interactions == Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770. '''Abstract''' Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective. ==Diptera== ===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies=== ====Food detection==== *''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392 *It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage ====Courtship==== *Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage *''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays. **https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062 *Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata'' **https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x ====Mimics for defense==== *Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae. **https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ *Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging. **https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612 *Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895<br> <br> ===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families=== The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:<br> * '''Carnoidea''' ** Acartophthalmidae 0 ** Australimyzidae 0 ** Braulidae (bee lice) 1 ** Canacidae (beach flies) 3 ** Carnidae (bird flies) 0 ** Chloropidae (frit flies) 259 ** Cryptochetidae 1 ** Inbiomyiidae 0 ** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158 <br> * '''Diopsoidea''' ** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies) 545 ** Gobryidae 0 ** Megamerinidae 0 ** Nothybidae 0 ** Psilidae (rust flies) 29 ** Somatiidae 0 ** Syringogastridae 0 <br> * '''Ephydroidea''' ** Camillidae 0 ** Campichoetidae 0 ** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies) 15 ** Diastatidae 0 ** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312 ** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117 <br> * '''Lauxanioidea''' ** Celyphidae (beetle flies) 0 ** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies) 24 ** Cremifaniidae 0 ** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies) 710 <br> * '''Nerioidea''' ** Cypselosomatidae 0 ** Fergusoninidae 0 ** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies) 245 ** Neriidae 109 ** Strongylophthalmyiidae 0 ** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies) 0 <br> * '''Opomyzoidea''' ** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161 ** Anthomyzidae 3 ** Asteiidae 4 ** Aulacigastridae 2 ** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2 ** Marginidae 0 ** Neminidae 0 ** Neurochaetidae 0 ** Odiniidae 0 ** Opomyzidae 4 ** Periscelididae 1 ** Teratomyzidae 0 ** Xenasteiidae 0 <br> * '''Sciomyzoidea''' ** Coelopidae (kelp flies) 51 ** Conopidae (thick-headed flies) 192 ** Dryomyzidae 1 ** Helcomyzidae 0 ** Helosciomyzidae 0 ** Heterocheilidae 0 ** Huttoninidae 0 ** Natalimyzidae 0 ** Phaeomyiidae 0 ** Ropalomeridae 1 ** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies) 67 ** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies) 269 <br> * '''Sphaeroceroidea''' ** Chyromyidae (golden flies) 19 ** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies) 151 ** Nannodastiidae 0 ** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies) 48 <br> * '''Tephritoidea''' ** Ctenostylidae 1 ** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47 ** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies) 5 ** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1 ** Platystomatidae (signal flies) 683 ** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies) 119 ** Richardiidae 0 ** Tachiniscidae 2 ** Tephritidae (fruit flies) 1,759 ** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165 == References == 9flbnuzauxwkh4spihbp769fiulicrd 2819423 2819422 2026-07-26T12:18:38Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin */ 2819423 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--Info--> == Rough guide to Liris species of South Africa == === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> = Pompilidae of South Africa = == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg </gallery> *The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent. * <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) == *The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus'' Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus'' Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex'' Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg| Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp. </gallery> <br> === Species with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen === Some parts may be brown. *''Java atropos'' *''Cyphononyx obscurus'' *''Hemipepsis vindex'' *''Hemipepsis vespertilio'' *''Hemipepsis braunsi'' *''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' <br> === Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red === *''Cyphononyx optimus'' *''Paracyphononyx zonatus'' <br> <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg </gallery> *With fuscous (darker) wing apex *One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated) *Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted) <br> == South African Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020] *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa) **''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) **''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) **= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319 *''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) <br> ==Afrotropical Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).<ref name=Madl2020>Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84. [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]</ref> Ceropalinae can be defined by:<ref name=Brothers1993>Brothers, D. J. & Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. & Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143</ref><ref name=Waichert2015> Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., & Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]</ref> == Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae == This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa & Schmid-Egger, 2025)<ref name=CoL2025> Kroupa, A. S., & Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv </ref> and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].<br> === Genus ''Ceropales'' === *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia) *''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia) *''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone) *''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal) *''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania) *''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo) *''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal) **''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) *''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea) *''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel) *''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania) **''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo) *''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia) <br> === Genus ''Irenangelus'' === *''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar) <br> ==Eumeninae== Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:<br> ''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)<br> ''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)<br> ==Ants== '''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)''' Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23) Amblyoponinae 7 Dolichoderinae 630 Dorylinae 1 167 Formicinae 10 396 Camponotus 6 090; Lepisiota 1 046 Myrmicinae 8 484 Crematogaster 1 786; Pheidole 1 468; Messor 1 156 Ponerinae 1 623 Proceratiinae 3 Pseudomyrmecinae 296 Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' <br> Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' <br> Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera <br> Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' <br> Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera<br> Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera<br> Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' <br> Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera<br> Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' <br> Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera <br> Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera <br> Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera <br> Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera <br> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae </gallery> == N-P interactions == Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770. '''Abstract''' Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective. ==Diptera== ===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies=== ====Food detection==== *''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392 *It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage ====Courtship==== *Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage *''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays. **https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062 *Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata'' **https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x ====Mimics for defense==== *Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae. **https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ *Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging. **https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612 *Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895<br> <br> ===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families=== The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:<br> * '''Carnoidea''' ** Acartophthalmidae 0 ** Australimyzidae 0 ** Braulidae (bee lice) 1 ** Canacidae (beach flies) 3 ** Carnidae (bird flies) 0 ** Chloropidae (frit flies) 259 ** Cryptochetidae 1 ** Inbiomyiidae 0 ** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158 <br> * '''Diopsoidea''' ** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies) 545 ** Gobryidae 0 ** Megamerinidae 0 ** Nothybidae 0 ** Psilidae (rust flies) 29 ** Somatiidae 0 ** Syringogastridae 0 <br> * '''Ephydroidea''' ** Camillidae 0 ** Campichoetidae 0 ** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies) 15 ** Diastatidae 0 ** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312 ** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117 <br> * '''Lauxanioidea''' ** Celyphidae (beetle flies) 0 ** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies) 24 ** Cremifaniidae 0 ** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies) 710 <br> * '''Nerioidea''' ** Cypselosomatidae 0 ** Fergusoninidae 0 ** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies) 245 ** Neriidae 109 ** Strongylophthalmyiidae 0 ** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies) 0 <br> * '''Opomyzoidea''' ** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161 ** Anthomyzidae 3 ** Asteiidae 4 ** Aulacigastridae 2 ** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2 ** Marginidae 0 ** Neminidae 0 ** Neurochaetidae 0 ** Odiniidae 0 ** Opomyzidae 4 ** Periscelididae 1 ** Teratomyzidae 0 ** Xenasteiidae 0 <br> * '''Sciomyzoidea''' ** Coelopidae (kelp flies) 51 ** Conopidae (thick-headed flies) 192 ** Dryomyzidae 1 ** Helcomyzidae 0 ** Helosciomyzidae 0 ** Heterocheilidae 0 ** Huttoninidae 0 ** Natalimyzidae 0 ** Phaeomyiidae 0 ** Ropalomeridae 1 ** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies) 67 ** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies) 269 <br> * '''Sphaeroceroidea''' ** Chyromyidae (golden flies) 19 ** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies) 151 ** Nannodastiidae 0 ** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies) 48 <br> * '''Tephritoidea''' ** Ctenostylidae 1 ** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47 ** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies) 5 ** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1 ** Platystomatidae (signal flies) 683 ** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies) 119 ** Richardiidae 0 ** Tachiniscidae 2 ** Tephritidae (fruit flies) 1,759 ** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165 == References == iicud2n5md3dgcwvy6vf6dqp760h8dt 2819424 2819423 2026-07-26T12:33:11Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Rough guide to Liris species of South Africa */ 2819424 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--Info--> == Rough guide to Liris species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> = Pompilidae of South Africa = == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg </gallery> *The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent. * <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) == *The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus'' Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus'' Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex'' Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg| Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp. </gallery> <br> === Species with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen === Some parts may be brown. *''Java atropos'' *''Cyphononyx obscurus'' *''Hemipepsis vindex'' *''Hemipepsis vespertilio'' *''Hemipepsis braunsi'' *''Batozonellus fuliginosus'' <br> === Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red === *''Cyphononyx optimus'' *''Paracyphononyx zonatus'' <br> <br> == South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline == <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg </gallery> *With fuscous (darker) wing apex *One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated) *Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted) <br> == South African Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020] *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?) *''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa) **''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) **''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) **= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319 *''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) <br> ==Afrotropical Ceropalinae == Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).<ref name=Madl2020>Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84. [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]</ref> Ceropalinae can be defined by:<ref name=Brothers1993>Brothers, D. J. & Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. & Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143</ref><ref name=Waichert2015> Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., & Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]</ref> == Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae == This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa & Schmid-Egger, 2025)<ref name=CoL2025> Kroupa, A. S., & Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv </ref> and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].<br> === Genus ''Ceropales'' === *''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia) *''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana) *''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia) *''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola) *''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya) *''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone) *''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa) *''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara) *''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa) *''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia) *''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal) *''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region) *''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia) *''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda) *''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa) *''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania) *''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo) *''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal) **''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal) *''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa) *''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar) *''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea) *''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel) *''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania) **''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo) *''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda) *''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe) *''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia) <br> === Genus ''Irenangelus'' === *''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar) <br> ==Eumeninae== Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:<br> ''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)<br> ''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)<br> ''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)<br> ''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)<br> ==Ants== '''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)''' Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23) Amblyoponinae 7 Dolichoderinae 630 Dorylinae 1 167 Formicinae 10 396 Camponotus 6 090; Lepisiota 1 046 Myrmicinae 8 484 Crematogaster 1 786; Pheidole 1 468; Messor 1 156 Ponerinae 1 623 Proceratiinae 3 Pseudomyrmecinae 296 Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' <br> Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' <br> Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera <br> Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' <br> Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera<br> Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera<br> Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' <br> Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera<br> Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' <br> Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera <br> Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera <br> Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera <br> Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera <br> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae </gallery> == N-P interactions == Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770. '''Abstract''' Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective. ==Diptera== ===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies=== ====Food detection==== *''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392 *It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage ====Courtship==== *Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females. **https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage *''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays. **https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062 *Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata'' **https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x ====Mimics for defense==== *Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae. **https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ *Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging. **https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612 *Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders. **https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895<br> <br> ===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families=== The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:<br> * '''Carnoidea''' ** Acartophthalmidae 0 ** Australimyzidae 0 ** Braulidae (bee lice) 1 ** Canacidae (beach flies) 3 ** Carnidae (bird flies) 0 ** Chloropidae (frit flies) 259 ** Cryptochetidae 1 ** Inbiomyiidae 0 ** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158 <br> * '''Diopsoidea''' ** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies) 545 ** Gobryidae 0 ** Megamerinidae 0 ** Nothybidae 0 ** Psilidae (rust flies) 29 ** Somatiidae 0 ** Syringogastridae 0 <br> * '''Ephydroidea''' ** Camillidae 0 ** Campichoetidae 0 ** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies) 15 ** Diastatidae 0 ** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312 ** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117 <br> * '''Lauxanioidea''' ** Celyphidae (beetle flies) 0 ** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies) 24 ** Cremifaniidae 0 ** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies) 710 <br> * '''Nerioidea''' ** Cypselosomatidae 0 ** Fergusoninidae 0 ** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies) 245 ** Neriidae 109 ** Strongylophthalmyiidae 0 ** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies) 0 <br> * '''Opomyzoidea''' ** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161 ** Anthomyzidae 3 ** Asteiidae 4 ** Aulacigastridae 2 ** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2 ** Marginidae 0 ** Neminidae 0 ** Neurochaetidae 0 ** Odiniidae 0 ** Opomyzidae 4 ** Periscelididae 1 ** Teratomyzidae 0 ** Xenasteiidae 0 <br> * '''Sciomyzoidea''' ** Coelopidae (kelp flies) 51 ** Conopidae (thick-headed flies) 192 ** Dryomyzidae 1 ** Helcomyzidae 0 ** Helosciomyzidae 0 ** Heterocheilidae 0 ** Huttoninidae 0 ** Natalimyzidae 0 ** Phaeomyiidae 0 ** Ropalomeridae 1 ** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies) 67 ** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies) 269 <br> * '''Sphaeroceroidea''' ** Chyromyidae (golden flies) 19 ** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies) 151 ** Nannodastiidae 0 ** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies) 48 <br> * '''Tephritoidea''' ** Ctenostylidae 1 ** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47 ** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies) 5 ** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1 ** Platystomatidae (signal flies) 683 ** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies) 119 ** Richardiidae 0 ** Tachiniscidae 2 ** Tephritidae (fruit flies) 1,759 ** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165 == References == sjfkg4xwva3psdhccqubdjuxcf7mwnf 2 275012 2819464 2819378 2026-07-27T04:34:13Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2819464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects (the mathematical electron model)''' The physical constants form the scaffolding around which the theories of physics are erected, and they define the fabric of our universe, but science has no idea why they take the special numerical values that they do, for these constants follow no discernible pattern. The desire to explain the constants has been one of the driving forces behind efforts to develop a complete unified description of nature, or "theory of everything". Physicists have hoped that such a theory would show that each of the constants of nature ''could have only one logically possible value''. It would reveal an underlying order to the seeming arbitrariness of nature <ref>J. Barrow, J. Webb {{Cite journal |title= Inconsistent constants |journal=Scientific American |volume=292 |pages=56 |date=2005}}</ref>. In the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> model, the [[w:Planck units |Planck units]] are assigned geometrical objects, themselves the geometry of alpha (the [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']]) and 2 mathematical constants; Omega and pi. These geometrical objects (mass M = 1, time T = π, P = Ω ...) embed their unit function (the geometry of the length object L embeds the function length and so on ...). By converting the physical constants (''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''_e ...) also to geometrical forms, and as these forms are also the geometry of alpha and Omega, then we can reverse engineer them and find a solution for alpha; using CODATA 2014 the best fit alpha = 1/137.0359931388... As the geometries of dimensionless constants, these objects are also dimensionless and so are independent of any system of units, and of any numerical system, and so could qualify as "natural units" ; {{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...'' ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as "natural units"... -Max Planck <ref>Planck (1899), p. 479.</ref><ref name="TOM">*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, "[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]", 287–296.</ref>}} === Planck unit limitations === The SI Planck units are measured; [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] in ''kg'', [[w:Planck length |Planck length]] in ''m'', [[w:Planck time |Planck time]] in ''s'' ... . These units have numerical values, this precludes finding a relation between these SI units, for numerical values are simply dimensionless frequencies, 299792458 could refer to the speed of light 299792458m/s or equally to the number of apples in a container (299792458 apples). Numbers such as 299792458 carry no unit-specific information, and so we are required to add a descriptive (such as m/s). Without foundations, any coincidences can be dismissed as numerology and the base units (kg, m, s, A...) become independent units by default. === Geometrical objects === This inherent restriction can be resolved by assigning to each unit a geometrical object for which the geometry embeds the attribute (for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function time and so a descriptive unit ''s'' = seconds is not required). We may then combine these objects Lego-style to form more complex objects; from electrons to galaxies, while still retaining the underlying attributes (of mass M, wavelength L, frequency T ...). An apple has mass because its 'geometry' includes the geometrical object for mass M. We define a physical constant as a constant embedded within the universe "source code" (it is a given). A mathematical constant however can be derived within the boundaries of the universe itself; π for example can be constructed from integers in series. <math display="block">\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n^2} = \frac{1}{1^2} + \frac{1}{2^2} + \frac{1}{3^2} + \cdots. </math> The mathematical constant Omega is built around a base-15 geometry, this is a requirement to construct the full set of Planck units. Omega itself is the geometry of π and Euler's number [[w:E_(mathematical_constant) |e]] = 2.718281828459... (which can also be constructed by integers in series); :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> === Base 15 geometry === We then need to define a mathematical relationship between these objects, a rule-set that dictates how they may 'fit' together to build more complex objects. We can define this unit number by theta as in unit <math>u^{\theta}</math>. This theta has no physical attribute, it is included for 'book-keeping', equivalent to including the SI units (kg, m, s...) with standard formulas. The distinction however that, being numerical, θ can represent relationships, the SI units are defined as independent units. From alpha, Omega and pi we can construct a table of Planck scale objects :<math>i = \Omega^{15}</math> :<math>x = \frac{i\;u^{15}\; r^4}{v}</math> :<math>y = \frac{i^{-2}\; u^{-30}\; r^9}{v^6}</math> :<math>j = \frac{m^{15/4}}{kg^{9/4} s^{11/4}} = 1</math> :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Geometrical objects (reference table) ! Attribute ! Formula ! Object ! Scalars ! Numerical ! <math>\theta</math> ! [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Dimensionless_f(x) |Units*]] |- | M (mass) | <math>(1) x i^{-1}</math> | <math>(1)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^4}{v}</math> | 0.217672825e-7 | <math>u^{15}</math> | <math>kg</math> |- | T (time) | <math>(\pi) y i^{2}</math> | <math>(\pi)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^6}\;j</math> | 0.539051838e-43 | <math>u^{-30}</math> | <math>s</math> |- | P (sqrt of momentum) | <math>M^{(4/5)} \;\left({\dfrac{\pi}{T}}\right)^{(2/15)} \;i</math> | <math>(\Omega)</math> | <math>r^2</math> | 1.019113428 | <math>u^{16}</math> | <math>\sqrt{\frac{kg\;m}{s}}</math> |- | V (velocity) | <math>\dfrac{2\pi P^2}{M}</math> | <math>(2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>v</math> | 299792458 | <math>u^{17}</math> | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | L (length) | <math>VT </math> | <math>(2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^5}\;j</math> | 0.161603675e-34 | <math>u^{-13}</math> | <math>m</math> |- | A (ampere) | <math>\dfrac{2^4 V^3 \alpha}{P^3}</math> | <math>(2^7\pi^3 \alpha \Omega^3)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^3}{r^6}</math> | 0.297221257e25 | <math>u^{3}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{3/2}}{kg^{3/2} s^{3/2}}</math> |- | K (temperature) | <math>\dfrac{AV}{2\pi}</math> | <math>(2^7 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^4}{r^6}</math> | 0.141814520e33 | <math>u^{20}</math> | <math>\left(\frac{A \; m}{s}\right)</math> |} === Scalars === To translate from geometrical objects to a numerical system of units requires system dependent scalars. For example; :If we use scalar ''k''_SI to convert ''M'' (M=1) to the SI Planck mass (M*''k''_SI = <math>m_P</math>), then ''k''_SI = 0.2176728e-7kg ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :SI ''c'' = object V * scalar ''v''_SI = 299792458m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :Imperial ''c'' = object V * scalar ''v''_imp = 186282miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) ==== Scalar relationships ==== Scalars that translate to the SI unit system must therefore carry not only the numerical conversion values but also the unit (for scalars we will refer to the SI unit system by default), i.e.: scalar ''v'' = 11843707.905 m/s. This also means that the scalars must also follow the unit number relationship θ. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit ''u''^θ |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' | <math>u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' | <math>u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | ''r''² | <math>u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' | <math>u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' | <math>u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | ''q'' | <math>u^3</math> |} Here are examples where units = 1, as such ''only 2 scalars are required'', for example, if we know the numerical value for ''q'' and for ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'' ('''t = q³l³'''), and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know the value for ''k''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{q^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> In other words, once any 2 scalars have been assigned values, the other scalars are then defined by default, consequently the CODATA 2014 values are used here as only 2 constants (c, [[w:permeability of vacuum|μ₀]]) are assigned exact values, following the [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]] a total of 4 constants now have independently exact values assigned which is problematic in terms of this model. Scalars ''r'' (θ = 8) and ''v'' (θ = 17) are chosen here for demonstration as they can be derived directly from the 2 constants with exact values; ''c'' and ''μ₀''. :<math>c = 299792458</math> m/s :<math>\mu_0 = 4\pi / 10^7</math> :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{a};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | 16 | <math>r^2</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | <math>v</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>\frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 4. Comparison; SI and θ ! constant ! θ (SI unit) ! MLTVA ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> (-13+30 = {{font color|red|white|17}}) | ''c*'' = <math>V*v</math> | {{font color|red|white|17}} |- | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> (15-26+30={{font color|red|white|19}}) | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L * \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}</math> | 8*13-17*5={{font color|red|white|19}} |- | ''G'' | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> (-39-15+60={{font color|red|white|6}}) | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M} * \frac{r^5}{v^2}</math> | 8*5-17*2={{font color|red|white|6}} |- | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> (3-30={{font color|red|white|-27}}) | ''e*'' = <math>A T * \frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> | 8*3-17*3={{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | ''k_B'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> (15-26+60-20={{font color|red|white|29}}) | ''k_B*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A} * \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}</math> | 8*10-17*3={{font color|red|white|29}} |- | ''μ₀'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> (15-13+60-6={{font color|red|white|56}}) | ''μ₀*'' = <math>\frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{a L A^2} * r^7</math> | 8*7={{font color|red|white|56}} |} ====CODATA 2014==== Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k_B''), consequently here we are using CODATA 2014 values. This is because only 2 dimensioned physical constants can be assigned exact values, once 2 constants (2 scalars) have been assigned values, then all other constants are defined by default. In CODATA 2014 2 constants have exact values; <math>c</math> and the [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] <math>\mu_0</math>. === Dimensionless f(x) === From our unit number relationship we can build a generic dimensionless formula f_x; <math>f_x = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = \frac{(\frac{r^4}{v})^9 (\frac{r^9}{v^6})^{11}}{(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^{15}} = 1</math> This f_x, although embedded within it are the dimensioned structures for mass, time and length (in the above ratio), according to the scalars it would be a dimensionless mathematical structure, units = 1. Thus we may create as much mass, time and length as we wish, the only proviso being that they are created in f_x style ratios, so that regardless of how massive, old and large our universe becomes, it is still in sum total dimensionless. Defining the dimensioned quantities ''r'', ''v'' in SI unit terms. :<math>r = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})^{1/4}</math> :<math>v = \frac{m}{s}</math> Mass :<math>\frac{r^4}{v} = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})\;(\frac{s}{m}) = kg</math> Length :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^5})^4 = \frac{s^{20}}{m^{20}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{11}} = m^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = m^4 f_x = m^4</math> Time :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^6})^4 = \frac{s^{24}}{m^{24}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^6})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{15}}{m^{15}} = s^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = s^4 f_x = s^4</math> We may note that at the macro-level (of planets and stars) these f_x ratio are not found, and so this level is the domain of the observed physical universe, however at the quantum level, f_x ratio do appear, ψ_electron is an example, the mathematical and physical domains then blurring. This would also explain why physics can measure precisely the parameters of the electron (wavelength, mass ...), but has never found the electron itself. === Fine structure constant === Classically the fine structure constant can be expressed by this formula. :<math>\frac{2 h}{\mu_0 e^2 c} = \color{red}\alpha^{-1} \color{black}</math> If we insert the geometrical analogues in this formula then alpha emerges, units and scalars cancel, serving to validate the unit number relationship and the geometries. :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{a}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{a})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{red}a \color{black}</math> :<math>units \;\frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1</math> :<math>scalars \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> Thus proving that <math> \color{red}\alpha\color{black} = \color{red}\alpha \color{black}</math> === Electron formula === {{main|User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron (mathematical)}} The ''electron object'' (''formula ψ'') is a mathematical particle (units and scalars cancel). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 a \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> units = 1 In this example, embedded within the electron are the objects for charge, length and time ALT. AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 a^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> Associated with the electron are dimensioned parameters, these parameters however are a function of the MLTA units, the formula ψ dictating the frequency of these units. [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> (M as [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] = <math>\frac{r^4}{v})</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> (L as [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] = <math>2\pi\Omega^2\frac{r^9}{v^5})</math> [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e^* = A\;T</math> (T as [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) = <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L a^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} a^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> === Omega === There is a natural number solution for Ω that is a square root implying that Ω can have a plus or a minus solution, and this agrees with the requirements of this theory (in the mass domain Ω occurs as Ω² = plus only, in the charge domain Ω occurs as Ω³ = can be plus or minus; see [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]). :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> As we saw in table 1., Omega occurs within a base-15 geometry <ref>https://simulationuniverse.org/article-1b_tau_function.html Omega and the sub Planck scale</ref>. === Dimensionless combinations === According to the unit number relationship, we can also combine the physical constants in combinations where the unit numbers cancel, in this model these combinations are dimensionless, however they still retain SI units. If the model is correct (if the combinations are dimensionless) then the scalars will also have cancelled and numerically the solutions using CODATA and Geometrical objects will approach equality (barring uncertainties). These combinations can be used to test the veracity of the MLTA geometries as natural Planck units. Example: :<math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}} :<math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}}, units = <math>\frac{kg^3 s^8}{m^{18} A^{13}}</math>, units = 1 (15*3-30*8+13*18-3*13 = 0) The geometry <math>\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}</math> (integer n ≥ 0) is common to all ratios where units and scalars cancel (i.e.: only combinations with <math>\Omega^0, \Omega^{15}, \Omega^{30}, \Omega^{45}</math>... will be dimensionless). Note also, the most precise correlations are those using the most precisely known constants. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 5. Dimensionless combinations ! CODATA 2014 mean ! (α, Ω) mean ! units = 1 ! scalars = 1 |- | <math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}</math> = {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.0'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}=</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1</math> |} === Derivation via CODATA === In this section, we show how to numerically solve the least precise dimensioned physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''e'', ''m''_e, ''k''_B ...) in terms of the 3 most precise dimensioned physical constants); [[w:Speed of light | speed of light]] '''c''' (exact value), [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] '''μ₀''' (exact value), [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] '''R''' (12-13 digits). We first look for combinations in which the unit numbers are equal, and then add dimensionless numbers as required. For example; :<math>{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39}u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> :<math>\frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 \alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2} = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39} u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> We then replace the geometrical with the SI (''c'', ''μ₀'', ''R'') <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 7. R, c, μ₀, a ... ! constant ! formula* ! θ ! Units |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{A^6 s}</math>, 15*3-3*6+30 = {{font color|red|white|57}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math>, θ = 15-13*2+30 = {{font color|red|white|19}} |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 a^{11} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg\; m^3}{A^2 s^2}</math>, 15-13*3-3*2+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|30}} | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math>, θ = -13*3-15+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|6}} |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 a^8 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{s^3}{m^3}</math>, -30*4+13*3 = {{font color|red|white|-81}} | <math>A s</math>, θ = 3-30 = {{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 a^5 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{s^2 A^6}</math>, 15*3+30*2-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|87}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math>, θ = 15-26+60-20 = {{font color|red|white|29}} |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 a^7}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3 s^2}{m^6 A^6}</math>, 15*3-30*2+13*6-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|45}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} a^{49} c^{35} R^8}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^9 s^{17}}{m^{18}A^{18}}</math>, 15*9-30*17+13*18-3*18 = {{font color|red|white|-195}} | <math>m</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|-13}} |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 a^{16} R^2}</math> | u = <math>\frac{kg^6 m^3}{s^7 A^{12}}</math>, 15*6-13*3+30*7-3*12 = {{font color|red|white|225}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |} === Table of Constants === note: <math>\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}</math> constants have no Omega term. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 9. Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! In Planck units ! Geometrical object ! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α^*) ! SI CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | V | <math>c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} </math> | ''c^*'' = 299 792 458, unit = u¹⁷ | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | | | ''α^*'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean) | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})</math> | <math>R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} </math> | ''R^*'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u¹³ | ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65) |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}</math> | ''μ₀^*'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u⁵⁶ | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) |- | [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]] | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}</math> | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}</math> | | |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | <math>h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | <math>G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{6}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>e^* = A T</math> | <math>e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{-27}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}</math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | | <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi},\; u^{15}</math> | ''m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]] | | <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi,\; u^{-13}</math> | ''λ_e^*'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u^-13 | ''λ_e'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12 |- | [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]] | <math>T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}</math> | <math>T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} </math> | ''T_p^*'' = 1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u²⁰ | ''T_p'' = 1.416 784(16) e32 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | M | <math>m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}</math> | ''m_P^*'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | L | <math>l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} </math> | ''l_p^*'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u^-13 | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | T | <math>t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} </math> | ''t_p^*'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u^-30 | ''t_p'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 |- | [[w:Ampere | Ampere]] | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}</math> | <math>A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 </math> | A^* = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u³ | ''e/t_p'' = 0.297 181 e25 |- | [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]] | <math>R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*</math> | <math>R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}</math> | ''R_K^*'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u⁷³ | ''R_K'' = 25812.807 455 5(59) |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | | <math>\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}</math> | ''γ_e/2π^*'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u^-42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} === Scalars (general)=== :<math>M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)</math> :<math>T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)</math> :<math>L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)</math> :<math>V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)</math> :<math>A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})q = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)</math> ===== MT to LPVA ===== In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT; :<math>M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}</math> :<math>T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}</math> Replacing scalars ''pvlq'' with ''kt'' :<math>P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}</math> :<math>V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3} </math> ===== PV to MTLA ===== In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; :<math>P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}</math> :<math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}</math> Replacing scalars ''kltq'' with ''pv'' :<math>M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} </math> :<math>T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}</math> ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===The 3 levels=== A model overview from the sub Planck scale to the container universe * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 Planck unit scaffolding to Cosmic Microwave Background correlation]]: Part 1. The Cosmological scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283/1 The Minimal Complexity Algorithm of the Planck Scaffolding]]: Part 2. The sub-Planck scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200/1 The Heavens and the Free Will postulate]]: Part 3. The Heavens (the container universe) ===Wiki series=== Introductions to principle concepts (for more complete discussion see General articles) * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== The following are HTML transcripts of journal articles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue == External links == * [https://theprogrammergod.com/ Overview of the Programmer God (mathematical electron model)] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ c25ufdil5528qe795sig3x8l8vqwper 2819499 2819464 2026-07-27T11:15:00Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 2819499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} '''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects (the mathematical electron model)''' The physical constants form the scaffolding around which the theories of physics are erected, and they define the fabric of our universe, but science has no idea why they take the special numerical values that they do, for these constants follow no discernible pattern. The desire to explain the constants has been one of the driving forces behind efforts to develop a complete unified description of nature, or "theory of everything". Physicists have hoped that such a theory would show that each of the constants of nature ''could have only one logically possible value''. It would reveal an underlying order to the seeming arbitrariness of nature <ref>J. Barrow, J. Webb {{Cite journal |title= Inconsistent constants |journal=Scientific American |volume=292 |pages=56 |date=2005}}</ref>. In the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]] <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref> model, the [[w:Planck units |Planck units]] are assigned geometrical objects, themselves the geometry of alpha (the [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']]) and 2 mathematical constants; Omega and pi. These geometrical objects (mass M = 1, time T = π, P = Ω ...) embed their unit function (the geometry of the length object L embeds the function length and so on ...). By converting the physical constants (''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''_e ...) also to geometrical forms, and as these forms are also the geometry of alpha and Omega, then we can reverse engineer them and find a solution for alpha; using CODATA 2014 the best fit alpha = 1/137.0359931388... As the geometries of dimensionless constants, these objects are also dimensionless and so are independent of any system of units, and of any numerical system, and so could qualify as "natural units" ; {{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...'' ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as "natural units"... -Max Planck <ref>Planck (1899), p. 479.</ref><ref name="TOM">*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, "[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]", 287–296.</ref>}} === Planck unit limitations === The SI Planck units are measured; [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]] in ''kg'', [[w:Planck length |Planck length]] in ''m'', [[w:Planck time |Planck time]] in ''s'' ... . These units have numerical values, this precludes finding a relation between these SI units, for numerical values are simply dimensionless frequencies, 299792458 could refer to the speed of light 299792458m/s or equally to the number of apples in a container (299792458 apples). Numbers such as 299792458 carry no unit-specific information, and so we are required to add a descriptive (such as m/s). Without foundations, any coincidences can be dismissed as numerology and the base units (kg, m, s, A...) become independent units by default. === Geometrical objects === This inherent restriction can be resolved by assigning to each unit a geometrical object for which the geometry embeds the attribute (for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function time and so a descriptive unit ''s'' = seconds is not required). We may then combine these objects Lego-style to form more complex objects; from electrons to galaxies, while still retaining the underlying attributes (of mass M, wavelength L, frequency T ...). An apple has mass because its 'geometry' includes the geometrical object for mass M. We define a physical constant as a constant embedded within the universe "source code" (it is a given). A mathematical constant however can be derived within the boundaries of the universe itself; π for example can be constructed from integers in series. <math display="block">\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n^2} = \frac{1}{1^2} + \frac{1}{2^2} + \frac{1}{3^2} + \cdots. </math> The mathematical constant Omega is built around a base-15 geometry, this is a requirement to construct the full set of Planck units. Omega itself is the geometry of π and Euler's number [[w:E_(mathematical_constant) |e]] = 2.718281828459... (which can also be constructed by integers in series); :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> === Base 15 geometry === We then need to define a mathematical relationship between these objects, a rule-set that dictates how they may 'fit' together to build more complex objects. We can define this unit number by theta as in unit <math>u^{\theta}</math>. This theta has no physical attribute, it is included for 'book-keeping', equivalent to including the SI units (kg, m, s...) with standard formulas. The distinction however that, being numerical, θ can represent relationships, the SI units are defined as independent units. From alpha, Omega and pi we can construct a table of Planck scale objects :<math>j = \frac{m^{15/4}}{kg^{9/4} s^{11/4}} = 1</math> :<math>v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Geometrical objects (reference table) ! Attribute ! Formula ! Object ! Scalars ! Numerical ! <math>\theta</math> ! [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Dimensionless_f(x) |Units*]] |- | M (mass) | <math></math> | <math>(1)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^4}{v}</math> | 0.217672825e-7 | <math>u^{15}</math> | <math>kg</math> |- | T (time) | <math></math> | <math>(\pi)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^6}\;j</math> | 0.539051838e-43 | <math>u^{-30}</math> | <math>s</math> |- | P (sqrt of momentum) | <math>\Omega \; M^{(4/5)} \;\left({\dfrac{\pi}{T}}\right)^{(2/15)}</math> | <math>(\Omega)</math> | <math>r^2</math> | 1.019113428 | <math>u^{16}</math> | <math>\sqrt{\frac{kg\;m}{s}}</math> |- | V (velocity) | <math>\dfrac{2\pi P^2}{M}</math> | <math>(2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>v</math> | 299792458 | <math>u^{17}</math> | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | L (length) | <math>VT </math> | <math>(2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>\dfrac{r^9}{v^5}\;j</math> | 0.161603675e-34 | <math>u^{-13}</math> | <math>m</math> |- | A (ampere) | <math>\dfrac{2^4 V^3 \alpha}{P^3}</math> | <math>(2^7\pi^3 \alpha \Omega^3)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^3}{r^6}</math> | 0.297221257e25 | <math>u^{3}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{3/2}}{kg^{3/2} s^{3/2}}</math> |- | K (temperature) | <math>\dfrac{AV}{2\pi}</math> | <math>(2^7 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)</math> | <math>\dfrac{v^4}{r^6}</math> | 0.141814520e33 | <math>u^{20}</math> | <math>\left(\frac{A \; m}{s}\right)</math> |} === Scalars === As alpha and Omega can be assigned numerical values, so too the MLTA objects can be expressed numerically. We can then convert these objects to their Planck unit equivalents by including a dimensioned scalar. For example; :If we use scalar ''k''_SI to convert ''M'' (M=1) to the SI Planck mass (M*''k''_SI = <math>m_P</math>), then ''k''_SI = 0.2176728e-7kg ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :SI ''c'' = object V * scalar ''v''_SI = 299792458m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]]) :Imperial ''c'' = object V * scalar ''v''_imp = 186282miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) ==== Scalar relationships ==== Scalars that translate to the SI unit system must therefore carry not only the numerical conversion values but also the unit (for scalars we will refer to the SI unit system by default), i.e.: scalar ''v'' = 11843707.905 m/s. This also means that the scalars must also follow the unit number relationship θ. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit ''u''^θ |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | ''k'' | <math>u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | ''t'' | <math>u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | ''r''² | <math>u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | ''v'' | <math>u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | ''l'' | <math>u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | ''q'' | <math>u^3</math> |} Here are examples where units = 1, as such ''only 2 scalars are required'', for example, if we know the numerical value for ''q'' and for ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'' ('''t = q³l³'''), and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know the value for ''k''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{q^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> In other words, once any 2 scalars have been assigned values, the other scalars are then defined by default, consequently the CODATA 2014 values are used here as only 2 constants (c, [[w:permeability of vacuum|μ₀]]) are assigned exact values, following the [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]] a total of 4 constants now have independently exact values assigned which is problematic in terms of this model. Scalars ''r'' (θ = 8) and ''v'' (θ = 17) are chosen here for demonstration as they can be derived directly from the 2 constants with exact values; ''c'' and ''μ₀''. :<math>c = 299792458</math> m/s :<math>\mu_0 = 4\pi / 10^7</math> :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{a};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Geometrical objects ! attribute ! geometrical object ! unit number θ ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 = 8*4-17 | <math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 = 8*9-17*6 | <math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> |- | sqrt(momentum) | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | 16 | <math>r^2</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | <math>v</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 = 8*9-17*5 | <math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})</math> | 3 = 17*3-8*6 | <math>\frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 4. Comparison; SI and θ ! constant ! θ (SI unit) ! MLTVA ! scalar r(8), v(17) |- | ''c'' | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> (-13+30 = {{font color|red|white|17}}) | ''c*'' = <math>V*v</math> | {{font color|red|white|17}} |- | ''h'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> (15-26+30={{font color|red|white|19}}) | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L * \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}</math> | 8*13-17*5={{font color|red|white|19}} |- | ''G'' | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> (-39-15+60={{font color|red|white|6}}) | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M} * \frac{r^5}{v^2}</math> | 8*5-17*2={{font color|red|white|6}} |- | ''e'' | <math>C = A s</math> (3-30={{font color|red|white|-27}}) | ''e*'' = <math>A T * \frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> | 8*3-17*3={{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | ''k_B'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> (15-26+60-20={{font color|red|white|29}}) | ''k_B*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A} * \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}</math> | 8*10-17*3={{font color|red|white|29}} |- | ''μ₀'' | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> (15-13+60-6={{font color|red|white|56}}) | ''μ₀*'' = <math>\frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{a L A^2} * r^7</math> | 8*7={{font color|red|white|56}} |} ====CODATA 2014==== Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k_B''), consequently here we are using CODATA 2014 values. This is because only 2 dimensioned physical constants can be assigned exact values, once 2 constants (2 scalars) have been assigned values, then all other constants are defined by default. In CODATA 2014 2 constants have exact values; <math>c</math> and the [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] <math>\mu_0</math>. === Dimensionless f(x) === From our unit number relationship we can build a generic dimensionless formula f_x; <math>f_x = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = \frac{(\frac{r^4}{v})^9 (\frac{r^9}{v^6})^{11}}{(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^{15}} = 1</math> This f_x, although embedded within it are the dimensioned structures for mass, time and length (in the above ratio), according to the scalars it would be a dimensionless mathematical structure, units = 1. Thus we may create as much mass, time and length as we wish, the only proviso being that they are created in f_x style ratios, so that regardless of how massive, old and large our universe becomes, it is still in sum total dimensionless. Defining the dimensioned quantities ''r'', ''v'' in SI unit terms. :<math>r = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})^{1/4}</math> :<math>v = \frac{m}{s}</math> Mass :<math>\frac{r^4}{v} = (\frac{kg\;m}{s})\;(\frac{s}{m}) = kg</math> Length :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^5})^4 = \frac{s^{20}}{m^{20}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^5})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{11}} = m^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = m^4 f_x = m^4</math> Time :<math>(r^9)^4 = \frac{kg^9\;m^9}{s^9} </math> :<math>(\frac{1}{v^6})^4 = \frac{s^{24}}{m^{24}}</math> :<math>(\frac{r^9}{v^6})^4 = \frac{kg^9 s^{15}}{m^{15}} = s^4 \frac{kg^9 s^{11}}{m^{15}} = s^4 f_x = s^4</math> We may note that at the macro-level (of planets and stars) these f_x ratio are not found, and so this level is the domain of the observed physical universe, however at the quantum level, f_x ratio do appear, ψ_electron is an example, the mathematical and physical domains then blurring. This would also explain why physics can measure precisely the parameters of the electron (wavelength, mass ...), but has never found the electron itself. === Fine structure constant === Classically the fine structure constant can be expressed by this formula. :<math>\frac{2 h}{\mu_0 e^2 c} = \color{red}\alpha^{-1} \color{black}</math> If we insert the geometrical analogues in this formula then alpha emerges, units and scalars cancel, serving to validate the unit number relationship and the geometries. :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{a}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{a})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{red}a \color{black}</math> :<math>units \;\frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1</math> :<math>scalars \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> Thus proving that <math> \color{red}\alpha\color{black} = \color{red}\alpha \color{black}</math> === Electron formula === {{main|User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Electron (mathematical)}} The ''electron object'' (''formula ψ'') is a mathematical particle (units and scalars cancel). :<math>\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 a \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> units = 1 In this example, embedded within the electron are the objects for charge, length and time ALT. AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 a^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 a \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> Associated with the electron are dimensioned parameters, these parameters however are a function of the MLTA units, the formula ψ dictating the frequency of these units. [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}</math> (M as [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] = <math>\frac{r^4}{v})</math> [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi</math> (L as [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] = <math>2\pi\Omega^2\frac{r^9}{v^5})</math> [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e^* = A\;T</math> (T as [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) = <math>\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L a^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} a^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}</math> === Omega === There is a natural number solution for Ω that is a square root implying that Ω can have a plus or a minus solution, and this agrees with the requirements of this theory (in the mass domain Ω occurs as Ω² = plus only, in the charge domain Ω occurs as Ω³ = can be plus or minus; see [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]). :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> As we saw in table 1., Omega occurs within a base-15 geometry <ref>https://simulationuniverse.org/article-1b_tau_function.html Omega and the sub Planck scale</ref>. === Dimensionless combinations === According to the unit number relationship, we can also combine the physical constants in combinations where the unit numbers cancel, in this model these combinations are dimensionless, however they still retain SI units. If the model is correct (if the combinations are dimensionless) then the scalars will also have cancelled and numerically the solutions using CODATA and Geometrical objects will approach equality (barring uncertainties). These combinations can be used to test the veracity of the MLTA geometries as natural Planck units. Example: :<math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}} :<math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}}, units = <math>\frac{kg^3 s^8}{m^{18} A^{13}}</math>, units = 1 (15*3-30*8+13*18-3*13 = 0) The geometry <math>\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}</math> (integer n ≥ 0) is common to all ratios where units and scalars cancel (i.e.: only combinations with <math>\Omega^0, \Omega^{15}, \Omega^{30}, \Omega^{45}</math>... will be dimensionless). Note also, the most precise correlations are those using the most precisely known constants. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 5. Dimensionless combinations ! CODATA 2014 mean ! (α, Ω) mean ! units = 1 ! scalars = 1 |- | <math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}</math> = {{font color|green|yellow|'''1.0'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}=</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> | <math>(v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1</math> | <math>(\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1</math> |} === Derivation via CODATA === In this section, we show how to numerically solve the least precise dimensioned physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''e'', ''m''_e, ''k''_B ...) in terms of the 3 most precise dimensioned physical constants); [[w:Speed of light | speed of light]] '''c''' (exact value), [[w:Vacuum permeability | vacuum permeability]] '''μ₀''' (exact value), [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] '''R''' (12-13 digits). We first look for combinations in which the unit numbers are equal, and then add dimensionless numbers as required. For example; :<math>{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39}u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> :<math>\frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 \alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2} = \frac{3^{19} \pi^{12} \Omega^{12} r^{39} u^{57}}{v^{15}},\; \theta = 57</math> We then replace the geometrical with the SI (''c'', ''μ₀'', ''R'') <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 7. R, c, μ₀, a ... ! constant ! formula* ! θ ! Units |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 a^{13} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{A^6 s}</math>, 15*3-3*6+30 = {{font color|red|white|57}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math>, θ = 15-13*2+30 = {{font color|red|white|19}} |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 a^{11} {R}^2}</math> | <math>\frac{kg\; m^3}{A^2 s^2}</math>, 15-13*3-3*2+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|30}} | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math>, θ = -13*3-15+30*2 = {{font color|red|white|6}} |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 a^8 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{s^3}{m^3}</math>, -30*4+13*3 = {{font color|red|white|-81}} | <math>A s</math>, θ = 3-30 = {{font color|red|white|-27}} |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 a^5 {R}}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3}{s^2 A^6}</math>, 15*3+30*2-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|87}} | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math>, θ = 15-26+60-20 = {{font color|red|white|29}} |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 a^7}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^3 s^2}{m^6 A^6}</math>, 15*3-30*2+13*6-3*6 = {{font color|red|white|45}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} a^{49} c^{35} R^8}</math> | <math>\frac{kg^9 s^{17}}{m^{18}A^{18}}</math>, 15*9-30*17+13*18-3*18 = {{font color|red|white|-195}} | <math>m</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|-13}} |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 a^{16} R^2}</math> | u = <math>\frac{kg^6 m^3}{s^7 A^{12}}</math>, 15*6-13*3+30*7-3*12 = {{font color|red|white|225}} | <math>kg</math>, θ = {{font color|red|white|15}} |} === Table of Constants === note: <math>\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}</math> constants have no Omega term. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 9. Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! In Planck units ! Geometrical object ! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α^*) ! SI CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | V | <math>c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} </math> | ''c^*'' = 299 792 458, unit = u¹⁷ | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | | | ''α^*'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean) | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})</math> | <math>R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} </math> | ''R^*'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u¹³ | ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65) |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}</math> | ''μ₀^*'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u⁵⁶ | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) |- | [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]] | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}</math> | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}</math> | | |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | <math>h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | <math>G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{6}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>e^* = A T</math> | <math>e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{-27}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}</math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | | <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi},\; u^{15}</math> | ''m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]] | | <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi,\; u^{-13}</math> | ''λ_e^*'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u^-13 | ''λ_e'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12 |- | [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]] | <math>T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}</math> | <math>T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} </math> | ''T_p^*'' = 1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u²⁰ | ''T_p'' = 1.416 784(16) e32 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | M | <math>m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}</math> | ''m_P^*'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | L | <math>l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} </math> | ''l_p^*'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u^-13 | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | T | <math>t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}\color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} </math> | ''t_p^*'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u^-30 | ''t_p'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 |- | [[w:Ampere | Ampere]] | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}</math> | <math>A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 </math> | A^* = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u³ | ''e/t_p'' = 0.297 181 e25 |- | [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]] | <math>R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*</math> | <math>R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}</math> | ''R_K^*'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u⁷³ | ''R_K'' = 25812.807 455 5(59) |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | | <math>\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}</math> | ''γ_e/2π^*'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u^-42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} === Scalars (general)=== :<math>M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)</math> :<math>T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)</math> :<math>L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)</math> :<math>V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)</math> :<math>A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})q = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)</math> ===== MT to LPVA ===== In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT; :<math>M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}</math> :<math>T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}</math> Replacing scalars ''pvlq'' with ''kt'' :<math>P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}</math> :<math>V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3} </math> ===== PV to MTLA ===== In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; :<math>P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}</math> :<math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}</math> Replacing scalars ''kltq'' with ''pv'' :<math>M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} </math> :<math>T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{a P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{a})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}</math> ==Article series== * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page ===The 3 levels=== A model overview from the sub Planck scale to the container universe * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 Planck unit scaffolding to Cosmic Microwave Background correlation]]: Part 1. The Cosmological scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283/1 The Minimal Complexity Algorithm of the Planck Scaffolding]]: Part 2. The sub-Planck scale * [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200/1 The Heavens and the Free Will postulate]]: Part 3. The Heavens (the container universe) ===Wiki series=== Introductions to principle concepts (for more complete discussion see General articles) * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass * [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model ===General articles=== The following are HTML transcripts of journal articles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain) * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles * [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue == External links == * [https://theprogrammergod.com/ Overview of the Programmer God (mathematical electron model)] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] __INDEX__ 4w6p7rgj0kvxb2xyqrphdz1cqqbhlit 4 285491 2819440 2818509 2026-07-26T12:57:31Z Alexis Jazz 791434 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) 2819440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. 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Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |CleanDeletions || 75 || 0 |- |EnhancedTalk || 1400 || 4 |- |HideFundraisingNotice || 840 || 8 |- |HotCat || 923 || 16 |- |LintHint || 119 || 1 |- |Round Corners || 1189 || 2 |- |contribsrange || 389 || 5 |- |dark-mode || 137 || 3 |- |dark-mode-toggle || 191 || 6 |- |edittop || 520 || 6 |- |popups || 882 || 7 |- |purge || 739 || 10 |- |sidebartranslate || 561 || 2 |- |usurper-count || 120 || 1 |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: CleanDeletions,75,0 EnhancedTalk,1400,4 HideFundraisingNotice,840,8 HotCat,923,16 LintHint,119,1 Round Corners,1189,2 contribsrange,389,5 dark-mode,137,3 dark-mode-toggle,191,6 edittop,520,6 popups,882,7 purge,739,10 sidebartranslate,561,2 usurper-count,120,1 --> kdedhlor9tbfvipw4rzt8kmsg3zcgau 0 286872 2819436 2819071 2026-07-26T12:52:34Z Alandmanson 1669821 2819436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{biology}} This is an informal learning project for [[User:Alandmanson|Alandmanson]] and anyone that wishes to join in. See [[Talk:African_Arthropods|Discuss: African Arthropods project]].<br> {{Navigation |title = African Arthropods Project |body = ;[[African Arthropods/Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] ::No sub-pages yet ;[[African Arthropods/Crustaceans|African Crustaceans]] ::No sub-pages yet ;[[African Arthropods/Hexapods|African Hexapods]] :[[African Arthropods/Insects|African Insects]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Diptera|Diptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Acalyptrate flies|Acalyptrate flies]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera|Hymenoptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Chalcidoidea|African Chalcidoidea]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eulophidae|African Eulophidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Encyrtidae|African Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Afrotropical Encyrtidae Key|Key to the genera of Afrotropical Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Chalcid wasps with branched antennae|African chalcid wasps with branched antennae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Wasps associated with plant galls|Wasps associated with plant galls]] :**[[African Arthropods/Diaprioidea|African Diaprioidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Platygastroidea|African Platygastroidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Aculeata|African Aculeata]] :***[[African Arthropods/Apoidea|African Apoidea]] :****[[African Arthropods/Ampulicidae|African Ampulicidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|African Crabronidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Sphecidae|African Sphecidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pemphredonidae|African Pemphredonidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Philanthidae|African Philanthidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Philanthus|South African species of Philanthus]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eumeninae|African potter wasps]] :***[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with dark, blackish wings|Pompilidae of South Africa with dark, blackish wings]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]]''' ;[[African Arthropods/Myriapods|African Myriapods]] ::No sub-pages yet }} The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). [[African_Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] - Including mites, harvestmen, solifuges, spiders, tailless whip scorpions, and sea spiders.<br> [[African Crustaceans]] - Including branchiopods, barnacles, crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, fish lice, tongue worms, and ostracods.<br> [[African Hexapods]] - Including springtails and [[African Arthropods/Insects|insects]].<br> [[African Myriapods]] - Including centipedes, millipedes, pauropodans, and symphylans.<br> == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Spiders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gracilentulus_nr._floridanus_(YPM_IZ_098960)_(cropped).jpeg|[[w:Protura|Coneheads]] Campodea fragilis 01.JPG|[[w:Diplura|Two-pronged bristletails]] Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — [[African Arthropods/Insects|Insects]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]] Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]] Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]] Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]] Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Very_pretty_centipede_that_fell_into_the_swimming_pool_yesterday._Beautiful_but_nasty,_Esther_got_stung_by_a_baby_and_it_was_not_nice,_I_suppose_this_one_could_have_an_interesting_bite._(8204823865).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]] Blue-legged Centipede (Ethmostigmus trigonopodus) (12681235843).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]] House centipede - Sri Lanka - 01.jpg|[[w:Scutigeromorpha|House centipedes]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Millipede,_South_Africa_(40435620062).jpg|[[w:Chilognatha|Chilognatha]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> 2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]] </gallery> == Arthropods in South Africa == :[[African Arthropods/Ferncliffe Nature Reserve|Ferncliffe Nature Reserve]] :[[African Arthropods/Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei''|Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei'']] :[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera of South Africa|Hymenoptera of South Africa]] :[[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] :[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] ::[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] == See Also == * [[Animal Phyla/Arthropoda]] * [[Wikipedia: Arthropoda]] * [[Wikipedia: Africa]] * [[Wikipedia: Afrotropical realm|Wikipedia: Afrotropical biogeographic realm]] * [https://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2015/fossil-focus-cambrian-arthropods/?doing_wp_cron=1704092366.8973550796508789062500 Evolution of Arthropods - palaeontologyonline.com]<br> <br> [[Category:African Arthropods]] [[Category:Non-formal Education]] qi5uj0stgbqx8454kfobv74nc3mahhg 2819438 2819436 2026-07-26T12:55:28Z Alandmanson 1669821 2819438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{biology}} This is an informal learning project for [[User:Alandmanson|Alandmanson]] and anyone that wishes to join in. See [[Talk:African_Arthropods|Discuss: African Arthropods project]].<br> {{Navigation |title = African Arthropods Project |body = ;[[African Arthropods/Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] ::No sub-pages yet ;[[African Arthropods/Crustaceans|African Crustaceans]] ::No sub-pages yet ;[[African Arthropods/Hexapods|African Hexapods]] :[[African Arthropods/Insects|African Insects]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Diptera|Diptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Acalyptrate flies|Acalyptrate flies]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera|Hymenoptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Chalcidoidea|African Chalcidoidea]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eulophidae|African Eulophidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Encyrtidae|African Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Afrotropical Encyrtidae Key|Key to the genera of Afrotropical Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Chalcid wasps with branched antennae|African chalcid wasps with branched antennae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Wasps associated with plant galls|Wasps associated with plant galls]] :**[[African Arthropods/Diaprioidea|African Diaprioidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Platygastroidea|African Platygastroidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Aculeata|African Aculeata]] :***[[African Arthropods/Apoidea|African Apoidea]] :****[[African Arthropods/Ampulicidae|African Ampulicidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|African Crabronidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Sphecidae|African Sphecidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pemphredonidae|African Pemphredonidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Philanthidae|African Philanthidae]] :*****[[African Arthropods/Philanthus|South African species of Philanthus]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eumeninae|African potter wasps]] :***[[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] :***[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with dark, blackish wings|Pompilidae of South Africa with dark, blackish wings]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]]''' ;[[African Arthropods/Myriapods|African Myriapods]] ::No sub-pages yet }} The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). [[African_Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] - Including mites, harvestmen, solifuges, spiders, tailless whip scorpions, and sea spiders.<br> [[African Crustaceans]] - Including branchiopods, barnacles, crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, fish lice, tongue worms, and ostracods.<br> [[African Hexapods]] - Including springtails and [[African Arthropods/Insects|insects]].<br> [[African Myriapods]] - Including centipedes, millipedes, pauropodans, and symphylans.<br> == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Spiders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gracilentulus_nr._floridanus_(YPM_IZ_098960)_(cropped).jpeg|[[w:Protura|Coneheads]] Campodea fragilis 01.JPG|[[w:Diplura|Two-pronged bristletails]] Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — [[African Arthropods/Insects|Insects]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]] Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]] Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]] Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]] Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Very_pretty_centipede_that_fell_into_the_swimming_pool_yesterday._Beautiful_but_nasty,_Esther_got_stung_by_a_baby_and_it_was_not_nice,_I_suppose_this_one_could_have_an_interesting_bite._(8204823865).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]] Blue-legged Centipede (Ethmostigmus trigonopodus) (12681235843).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]] House centipede - Sri Lanka - 01.jpg|[[w:Scutigeromorpha|House centipedes]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Millipede,_South_Africa_(40435620062).jpg|[[w:Chilognatha|Chilognatha]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> 2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]] </gallery> == Arthropods in South Africa == :[[African Arthropods/Ferncliffe Nature Reserve|Ferncliffe Nature Reserve]] :[[African Arthropods/Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei''|Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei'']] :[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera of South Africa|Hymenoptera of South Africa]] :[[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] :[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] ::[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] == See Also == * [[Animal Phyla/Arthropoda]] * [[Wikipedia: Arthropoda]] * [[Wikipedia: Africa]] * [[Wikipedia: Afrotropical realm|Wikipedia: Afrotropical biogeographic realm]] * [https://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2015/fossil-focus-cambrian-arthropods/?doing_wp_cron=1704092366.8973550796508789062500 Evolution of Arthropods - palaeontologyonline.com]<br> <br> [[Category:African Arthropods]] [[Category:Non-formal Education]] qf1qvtd20c8vo9s7ahb8u3ta7ixq4e4 2819439 2819438 2026-07-26T12:56:33Z Alandmanson 1669821 2819439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{biology}} This is an informal learning project for [[User:Alandmanson|Alandmanson]] and anyone that wishes to join in. See [[Talk:African_Arthropods|Discuss: African Arthropods project]].<br> {{Navigation |title = African Arthropods Project |body = ;[[African Arthropods/Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] ::No sub-pages yet ;[[African Arthropods/Crustaceans|African Crustaceans]] ::No sub-pages yet ;[[African Arthropods/Hexapods|African Hexapods]] :[[African Arthropods/Insects|African Insects]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Diptera|Diptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Acalyptrate flies|Acalyptrate flies]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera|Hymenoptera]]''' :**[[African Arthropods/Chalcidoidea|African Chalcidoidea]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eulophidae|African Eulophidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Encyrtidae|African Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Afrotropical Encyrtidae Key|Key to the genera of Afrotropical Encyrtidae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Chalcid wasps with branched antennae|African chalcid wasps with branched antennae]] :***[[African Arthropods/Wasps associated with plant galls|Wasps associated with plant galls]] :**[[African Arthropods/Diaprioidea|African Diaprioidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Platygastroidea|African Platygastroidea]] :**[[African Arthropods/Aculeata|African Aculeata]] :***[[African Arthropods/Apoidea|African Apoidea]] :****[[African Arthropods/Ampulicidae|African Ampulicidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|African Crabronidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Sphecidae|African Sphecidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pemphredonidae|African Pemphredonidae]] :****[[African Arthropods/Philanthidae|African Philanthidae]] :*****[[African Arthropods/Philanthus|South African species of Philanthus]] :***[[African Arthropods/Eumeninae|African potter wasps]] :***[[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] :***[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] :****[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with dark, blackish wings|Pompilidae of South Africa with dark, blackish wings]] :* '''[[African Arthropods/Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]]''' ;[[African Arthropods/Myriapods|African Myriapods]] ::No sub-pages yet }} The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). [[African_Chelicerates|African Chelicerates]] - Including mites, harvestmen, solifuges, spiders, tailless whip scorpions, and sea spiders.<br> [[African Crustaceans]] - Including branchiopods, barnacles, crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, fish lice, tongue worms, and ostracods.<br> [[African Hexapods]] - Including springtails and [[African Arthropods/Insects|insects]].<br> [[African Myriapods]] - Including centipedes, millipedes, pauropodans, and symphylans.<br> == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Spiders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gracilentulus_nr._floridanus_(YPM_IZ_098960)_(cropped).jpeg|[[w:Protura|Coneheads]] Campodea fragilis 01.JPG|[[w:Diplura|Two-pronged bristletails]] Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — [[African Arthropods/Insects|Insects]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]] Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]] Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]] Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]] Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Very_pretty_centipede_that_fell_into_the_swimming_pool_yesterday._Beautiful_but_nasty,_Esther_got_stung_by_a_baby_and_it_was_not_nice,_I_suppose_this_one_could_have_an_interesting_bite._(8204823865).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]] Blue-legged Centipede (Ethmostigmus trigonopodus) (12681235843).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]] House centipede - Sri Lanka - 01.jpg|[[w:Scutigeromorpha|House centipedes]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Millipede,_South_Africa_(40435620062).jpg|[[w:Chilognatha|Chilognatha]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> 2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]] </gallery> == Arthropods in South Africa == :[[African Arthropods/Ferncliffe Nature Reserve|Ferncliffe Nature Reserve]] :[[African Arthropods/Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei''|Arthropods on ''Ficus burkei'']] :[[African Arthropods/Hymenoptera of South Africa|Hymenoptera of South Africa]] :[[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] :[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa|Pompilidae of South Africa]] ::[[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black|Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings, wingtips black]] == See Also == * [[Animal Phyla/Arthropoda]] * [[Wikipedia: Arthropoda]] * [[Wikipedia: Africa]] * [[Wikipedia: Afrotropical realm|Wikipedia: Afrotropical biogeographic realm]] * [https://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2015/fossil-focus-cambrian-arthropods/?doing_wp_cron=1704092366.8973550796508789062500 Evolution of Arthropods - palaeontologyonline.com]<br> <br> [[Category:African Arthropods]] [[Category:Non-formal Education]] 7lv25s1dpjs48l7xhkif8znycpbio9t 0 295643 2819474 2819085 2026-07-27T07:42:47Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2819474 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 2-hour weekly live, online '''lectures''' which are recorded. The lectures discuss theory and research about motivation and emotion. The lectures are based on the textbook ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]). Each lecture page on Wikiversity provides: # Overview # Slides and handouts # Readings from Reeve (2024) # Resources and links<noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures]]<noinclude> pwzgl8k5grhvlcyv1abgsni3mpltruk 2819477 2819474 2026-07-27T07:52:40Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2819477 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 2-hour weekly live, online '''lectures''', starting in Week 1, which are recorded. The lectures discuss theory and research about motivation and emotion. The lectures are based on the textbook ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]). Each lecture page on Wikiversity provides: # Overview # Slides and handouts # Readings from Reeve (2024) # Resources and links<noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures]]<noinclude> q4u8cqxjcbvny3h72iqo2jb1rzpv1du 2819488 2819477 2026-07-27T08:45:32Z Jtneill 10242 2819488 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 2-hour weekly live, online Finding answers to these questions from a psychological science perspective through [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]], starting in Week 1, which are recorded. The lectures discuss theory and research about motivation and emotion. The lectures are based on the textbook ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]). Each lecture page on Wikiversity provides: # Overview # Slides and handouts # Readings from Reeve (2024) # Resources and links<noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures]]<noinclude> e0g5wrfurghpafdnfxcr211c6qk404g 2819489 2819488 2026-07-27T08:45:58Z Jtneill 10242 2819489 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 2-hour weekly live, online [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lectures]], starting in Week 1, which are recorded. The lectures discuss theory and research about motivation and emotion. The lectures are based on the textbook ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]). Each lecture page on Wikiversity provides: # Overview # Slides and handouts # Readings from Reeve (2024) # Resources and links<noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures]]<noinclude> gso4t11yi7v1u26k2fvu4rrd4ggvb2l 0 295644 2819475 2531155 2026-07-27T07:47:44Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2819475 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 1 hour weekly live online and on-campus '''tutorials''', starting in Week 1, which are recorded. The tutorials review and key weekly topics, involve interactive activities to explore applications, and teach skills required for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project]]major project]] ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]). The tutorial recordings are available by Wednesday evening each week. Each tutorial page provides: # Overview # Activity notes # Resources and links Tutorial attendance is strongly recommended but not compulsory. Non-engagement in tutorials may make successful completion of the assessment exercises more difficult. If you are unable to attend your scheduled tutorial, attend a tutorial at a different time or access the online recording. <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials]]</noinclude> 3qvajh52231ovz509xh6v9xhklz4m46 2819476 2819475 2026-07-27T07:48:07Z Jtneill 10242 2819476 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 1 hour weekly live online and on-campus '''tutorials''', starting in Week 1, which are recorded. The tutorials review and key weekly topics, involve interactive activities to explore applications, and teach skills required for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]). The tutorial recordings are available by Wednesday evening each week. Each tutorial page provides: # Overview # Activity notes # Resources and links Tutorial attendance is strongly recommended but not compulsory. Non-engagement in tutorials may make successful completion of the assessment exercises more difficult. If you are unable to attend your scheduled tutorial, attend a tutorial at a different time or access the online recording. <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials]]</noinclude> 0ehaffguexqu05qi2xvd11hq2vzpnot 2819487 2819476 2026-07-27T08:44:45Z Jtneill 10242 2819487 wikitext text/x-wiki There are 12 x 1 hour weekly live online and on-campus [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], starting in Week 1, which are recorded. The tutorials review and key weekly topics, involve interactive activities to explore applications, and teach skills required for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]). The tutorial recordings are available by Wednesday evening each week. Each tutorial page provides: # Overview # Activity notes # Resources and links Tutorial attendance is strongly recommended but not compulsory. Non-engagement in tutorials may make successful completion of the assessment exercises more difficult. If you are unable to attend your scheduled tutorial, attend a tutorial at a different time or access the online recording. <noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials]]</noinclude> fdjw3zrx9qzzb5ph1tsfzzifwcw230b 0 302668 2819462 2816626 2026-07-27T04:23:20Z Nadia.and.Nasim 3008160 Spelling 2819462 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Science | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | first1 = Kholhring | w1 = Himalayan fossil hoax | from_w1 = true | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | keywords = Ammonoid, conodont, fossil, Himalayan geology, plagiarism, scientific misconduct | submitted = 2024-01-05 | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = The Himalayan fossil hoax, or simply the Himalayan hoax, or the case of the peripatetic fossils, was perpetrated by an Indian geologist Vishwa Jit Gupta of Panjab University. Since his doctoral research in the early 1960s and the following two decades, Gupta worked on the geological and fossil studies of the Himalayan region, producing hundreds of research publications that were taken as fundamental to understanding the geology of the Himalayas. The Australian geologist John Talent of Macquarie University, who also worked on the geology of the Himalayas, found that Gupta's reports did not match those geological settings and the fossils were particularly odd, with some of them extraordinarily similar to those from other parts of the world. With Glenn Brock, Talent meticulously scrutinised Gupta's voluminous publications and revealed that Gupta had manipulated, faked, recycled, and plagiarised his data. Early in 1978, Gilbert Klapper and Willi Ziegler had suspected foul play when they noticed that Gupta's conodont fossils were similar to those collected by George Jennings Hinde from Buffalo, New York, a century before. As Arun Deep Ahluwalia recalled, Gupta had faked conodont fossils by planting them in the Himalayan rock samples to impress Kiril Budurov in 1980. Gupta duped Philippe Janvier into describing a fish fossil as a new species in 1982, which Janvier later found was collected from China. Talent also discovered in 1986 that Gupta used Moroccan fossils available in a Paris shop to report the presence of ammonoid fossils in the Himalayas. Brock's investigation showed that Gupta's earliest publications including his doctoral thesis indicated plagiarised fossil pictures directly clipped from the 20th-century monographs of Frederick Richard Cowper Reed. Talent publicly revealed Gupta's anomalous fossils and geological inconsistencies at the International Symposium on the Devonian System held at Calgary, Canada, in 1987. His documented criticism was published in German serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' the next year, but was not widely read. Dubbed the Himalayan peripatetic (misplaced) fossils, the case became global news in 1989 when Talent summarised the ''Courier'' story in ''Nature'', with an associated journalistic investigation by Roger Lewin published in ''Science''. It came to light that many of Gupta's Himalayan fossils were acquired from different parts of the world − some bought and some apparently stolen. Gupta had chosen "phantom localities" to attribute his fossil discoveries without ever visiting them. The University Grants Commission of India withdrew its funding to his research. Although suspended for 11 months, Panjab University continued his employment until his normal retirement in 2002. The case was described as "the biggest paleontological fraud of all time" by Talent and as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century" by the Indian magazine ''Down to Earth''. }} == Background == [[w:Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|Vishwa Jit Gupta]] (1942—2022) worked for his Ph.D. degree under the supervision of Mulk Raj Sahni at [[w:Panjab_University|Panjab University]] in Chandigarh, India. Focussing on the palaeontology and geological features of the Himalayas, he started his main research and field work in 1963. He and Sahni reported the initial findings in five papers in 1964 − a discovery of graptolites in two papers in ''[[w:Nature_(journal)|Nature]]'',''<ref name=":37">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-01-25|title=Graptolites in the Indian Sub-continent|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/201385b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=201|issue=4917|pages=385–386|bibcode=1964Natur.201..385S|doi=10.1038/201385b0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4192515}}</ref><ref name=":38">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-12-01|title=Graptolites from the Kashmir Himalayas, also a Note on the Discovery of Fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/2041081a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=204|issue=4963|pages=1081–1082|bibcode=1964Natur.204.1081S|doi=10.1038/2041081a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4218125}}</ref>'' a fossil assemblage in two papers in ''[[w:Current_Science|Current Science]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Lower Palaeozoic Fossils from the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/13/0402.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=13|pages=402–403|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24061792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Additional fossils from the lower palaeozoic of the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/17/0527.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=17|pages=527|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> and one in the ''[[w:Journal_of_the_Palaeontological_Society_of_India|Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India]].''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M.R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1964|title=First record of fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC0JAAAAIAAJ|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=4|pages=33–34|issn=0552-9360|doi=10.1177/0971102319590106}}</ref> His doctoral thesis was entitled ''Palaeontology, Stratigraphy and Structure of the Palaeozoic Rocks of the Area South-East of Srinagar'' upon which he received his degree in 1966.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Over 25 years, Gupta published over 458 research articles and five books.<ref name=":14" /> His publications were recognised as standard references on the [[w:Himalayan_geology|geology]] and fossil record of the Himalayan region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12216622-800-fossils-scandal-throws-himalayas-into-turmoil/|title=Fossils scandal throws Himalayas into turmoil|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1989-04-29|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As an honour, the Panjab University awarded him a D.Sc. and in 1972 created him a separate chair, Director of the Institute of Paleontology.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Technical incongruities in Gupta's research were first pointed out by Sampige Venkateshaiya Srikantia, Om Narain Bhargava and Hari Mohan Kapoor of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=Om|date=2024-06-01|title=John Alfred Talent (1932 - 2024)|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jour-geosocindia/article/100/6/911/644273/John-Alfred-Talent-1932-2024|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=100|issue=6|pages=911–911|doi=10.17491/jgsi/2024/173925|issn=0016-7622}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=O. N.|date=2024-06|title=John Alfred Talent (18 October 1932 – 27 March 2024)|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/05529360241257711|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=69|issue=1|pages=95–96|doi=10.1177/05529360241257711|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> In 1978, Srikantia's team described the presence of bivalve mollusk fossils (''Eurydesma cordatum'' and ''Deltopecten mitchelli'') from Lahaul Valley, Himachal Pradesh, following a scientific exploration of the Himalayas.<ref name=":31">{{Cite journal|last=S. V.|first=Srikantia|last2=Bhargava|first2=O. N.|last3=Kapoor|first3=H. M.|date=1978-02-01|title=A Note on the Occurrence of Eurydesma and Deltopecten Assemblage from the Kuling Formation (Permian) Baralacha Ban Area, Lahaul Valley, Himachal Himalaya|url=https://www.indianjournaloffinance.co.in/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64128|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=73–78|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They came across the accounts of Gupta on the identification of ''Eurydesma'' at two locations in the Himalayas. In 1970 Gupta had reported finding the fossils in [[w:Lachulung_La|Lachulung La]], identifying the deposits as Permian (Cisuralian, around 298 to 272 million years old) limestone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Mahajan|first2=G.|last3=Kumar|first3=S.|last4=Chadha|first4=D.K.|last5=Bisaria|first5=P.C.|last6=Virdi|first6=N.S.|last7=Kochhar|first7=N.|last8=Kashyap|first8=S.R.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy along the Manali-Leh road|journal=Publication of the Centre of Advanced Study in Geology|volume=7|pages=77−84}}</ref> In 1973, he again described the same specimens from the Malung shale of Lahaul Valley in his book ''Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Palaeozoic_Stratigraphy/1iIzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1|title=Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1973|publisher=Hindustan Publishing Corporation|pages=87−89|language=en}}</ref> Here, Gupta assigned the fossils to a much younger Upper Permian (Lopingian, around 259 to 251 million years old). Srikantia's team noticed not only that Gupta's bivalves could not have existed in such different ages, but also found critical errors. They determined that Lachulung La was of a much younger series, the Triassic-Jurassic (250 to 145 million years old); Malung shale was already known to be of Upper Triassic (208 to 201 million years old). Their report ends with a cautionary statement: "the sequence built up by Gupta in the Sarchu area cannot be used for any stratigraphic work."<ref name=":31" /> [[File:John Alfred Talent.jpg|thumb|John Alfred Talent at age 74. [Nadia Talent, [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1978, American geologist [[w:Gilbert_Klapper|Gilbert Klapper]] from the [[w:University_of_Iowa|University of Iowa]] met [[w:Willi_Ziegler|Willi Ziegler]] at the [[w:University_of_Marburg|University of Marburg]] in Germany to discuss the progress of research on the fossil group of jawless vertebrates, the [[w:Conodonts|conodonts]]. At the time of Klapper's visit, Ziegler had two Australian guests, John W. Pickett from the Geological Survey of New South Wales and his associate [[w:John_Alfred_Talent|John Alfred Talent]] (Figure 1{{Efn|Talent, aged 91, died on 27 March 2024 as this paper was under peer review.<ref name=":46"/>}}) from Macquarie University in Sydney.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Talent by then was an established expert in Devonian geology of Australian and Indian regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veevers|first=J. J.|last2=Jones|first2=J. G.|last3=Talent|first3=J. A.|date=1971-02-05|title=Indo-Australian stratigraphy and the configuration and dispersal of Gondwanaland|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16059257|journal=Nature|volume=229|issue=5284|pages=383–388|doi=10.1038/229383a0|issn=0028-0836|pmid=16059257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1972|title=Provincialism and Australian early Devonian faunas|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00167617208728794|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of Australia|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=80–97|doi=10.1080/00167617208728794|issn=0016-7614}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1981|title=Palaeontology and stratigraphy in India retrospect and prospects|url=https://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64914|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|volume=22|issue=10|pages=453–457|issn=0016-7622}}</ref> As the leader of the research team of the first [[w:International_Geological_Correlation_Programme|International Geological Correlation Programme]] (IGCP-1), a project of [[w:UNESCO|UNESCO]], Talent had explored the Himalayas during 1973−1977.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000064480|title=International Geological Correlation Programme: first session of the Board|date=1973|website=UNESCO|access-date=2024-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/International_Geological_Correlation_Pro.html?id=IC9SAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=International Geological Correlation Programme IGCP: Scientific Achievements 1973-1977|last=|first=|date=1978|publisher=UNESCO|editor-last=Bassett|editor-first=M.G.|location=Paris|pages=1−120|language=en|lccn=81452549}}</ref><ref name=":46">{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Andrew|date=2024|title=John Talent: A full life (1932-2024)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380753862_John_Talent_A_full_life_1932-2024|journal=Pander Society Newsletter|volume=56|pages=10−14}}</ref> Pickett and Talent shared their Himalayan studies and discussed Gupta's research on the conodonts. They had also investigated 20 locations around Nepal,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> where Gupta had claimed many discoveries of conodonts from Triassic, Permian, Carboniferous (around 359 to 299 million years old) and [[w:Devonian|Devonian]] (around 420 to 360 million years old) deposits,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Conodont biostratigraphy of the Middle and Upper Triassic rocks of Kashmir and Ladakh|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=6|pages=314−322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Rafek|first2=M.|date=1976|title=Middle and Upper Triassic conodonts from the Himalayas|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=2|pages=196–214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Carboniferous conodonts from Ladakh|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=1|pages=12−36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Uppal|first2=S.|date=1984|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/13323|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=90|issue=3|pages=303−320|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/13323}}</ref> and to their astonishment, found not a trace of fossils, except one that belonged to an older period, the [[w:Silurian|Silurian]] (around 443 to 420 million years ago).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> In one particular case, they explored the area where Gupta and [[w:William_B._N._Berry|William B. N. Berry]] had reported in 1966 several fossils from Kashmir.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> They found that not only the rocks were wrongly identified, but were so deformed that no fossil could have been present.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> [[File:Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences (1919) (20254717390).jpg|thumb|Conodonts from Eighteen Mile Creek. Numbers 7 and 10 were reported by G. J. Hinde. [Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, [https://flickr.com/commons Flickr Commons]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] When Klapper and Ziegler learned of this story, they checked some of Gupta's papers and instantly noticed in two papers photographs of the same conodont fossil. Gupta's report indicated they were collected from sites several miles apart. They thought this could be a case of accidental duplication of the same photograph.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> The real suspicion arose when they found the resemblance of Gupta's fossils with those collected by [[w:George_Jennings_Hinde|George Jennings Hinde]] from the [[w:Eighteen_Mile_Creek|Eighteen Mile Creek]] near Buffalo in New York (Figure 2),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Connell|first=Marjorie|date=1918-12-13|title=George Jennings Hinde|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.48.1250.588|journal=Science|language=en|volume=48|issue=1250|pages=588–590|doi=10.1126/science.48.1250.588|issn=0036-8075|jstor=1642345|jstor-access=free}}</ref> that had been presented before the [[w:Geological_Society_of_London|Geological Society of London]] a century before, in 1876.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7c43GPOUg0C&dq=George+Hinde+in+1879+fossil+buffalo&pg=PP2|title=The Great Fossil Enigma: The Search for the Conodont Animal|last=Knell|first=Simon J.|date=2012-11-06|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-00604-2|pages=374|language=en}}</ref> Gupta sought out Klapper and Ziegler to collaborate at different times, but they declined due to their concern about the suspicious incidents.<ref name=":02" /> The first methodical and critical analysis of Gupta's research records were done by Prem N. Agarwal and S. N. Singh of Lucknow University. In 1980, Agarwal and Singh reviewed research development in the general palaeontology of the Himalayas in which they also examined Gupta's papers.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Agarwal|first=Prem N.|last2=Singh|first2=S. N.|date=1980-05|title=Recent advances in micropalaeontological investigations of the marme Triassic rocks of India|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971102319800112|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=110–129|doi=10.1177/0971102319800112|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> First, they found the long list of conodonts described by Gupta in 1978<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1981 [1978]|orig-year=|title=Triassic conodonts from the Himalaya and their stratigraphic and palaeobiogeographic implications|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120478735|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=87|issue=1|pages=23−39}}</ref> that bears uncanny resemblance to those in the doctoral thesis of Nand Lal Chhabra submitted to the University of Lucknow in 1977. They noted: "It is really a surprising coincidence, unless either of the authors has drawn upon the data of the other without proper reference or acknowledgement."<ref name=":32" /> Gupta's conodonts and their geological settings turned out to be a major issue.<ref name=":33" /> What Agarwal and Singh revealed next was the utterly messed up fossils with their locations in most of Gupta's papers; the same species found in the same location reported in one paper were absent in another report. The overall information was so chaotic and inconsistent that they concluded: "These anomalies in different papers by the same author/s is not understandable, unless they are serious printing mistakes."<ref name=":32" /> Talent made another startling discovery in 1987 while he was in Paris.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He visited Alain Carion's shop of minerals, fossils and meteorites, the ''Carion Minéraux'', on Île Saint-Louis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog/?_x_tr_sl=fr&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc|title=Carion Minéraux: Minéraux, Fossiles et Météorites|website=www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> He purchased many fossils from there including some extinct mollusks and [[w:Ammonoids|ammonoids]] that were explicitly labelled to have been collected from a fossil site near [[w:Erfoud|Erfoud]], Morocco. The Moroccan fossils, as he soon discerned, were very similar to, indeed identical to Gupta's fossils from the Himalayas. It was then that Talent decided to compile the accumulating record of discordance in Gupta's research.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> With his former student and associate Glenn Anthony Brock, he meticulously reanalysed Gupta's published works, establishing that the artifice was not just one or few incidences but that Gupta was a prolific fraudster, faking, recycling and plagiarising research data in hundreds of publications.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":40" /> [[File:Youngolepis praecursor Fig1.jpg|thumb|''Youngolepis praecursor'', a fish fossil from Yunnan, China, which Gupta claimed also present in the Himalayas. [Cui ''et al''., 2022, [[creativecommons:by/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1980, Gupta met [[w:Philippe_Janvier|Philippe Janvier]] at the [[w:Museum_of_Natural_History,_Paris|Museum of Natural History in Paris]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Janvier |first=Philippe |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Breakdown of trust |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341016a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=16|bibcode=1989Natur.341...16J|doi=10.1038/341016a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and showed him "a magnificent fossil fish skull" which he brought along.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He claimed that the fossil was collected by him from Zanskar, Ladakh, at the foothills of the Himalayas. Recognising the fossil as a new species, Janvier made the identification and with Gupta submitted the discovery in ''Recent Researches in Geology''.<ref name=":5" /> Shortly after, Janvier went to Sweden where he met [[w:Mee-mann_Chang|Mee-mann Chang]] (also Zhang Miman) from the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology who was working on her doctoral research on fish fossils from China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Mee-mann|last2=Xhu|first2=Xiaobo|date=1997|title=Reexamination of the relationship of Middle Devonian osteolepids – fossil characters and their interpretations|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Reexamination-of-the-Relationship-of-Middle-and-Chang/253a412520912ec1953464edbbf4bbd88e545851|journal=Novitates|volume=3189|pages=1–14}}</ref> Janvier immediately noticed that some of Chang's fossils were exactly like the one he and Gupta had recently described. When inquired, Chang explained to him that the particular specimen was a Devonian [[w:Coelacanth|coelacanth]] she named ''[[w:Youngolepis_praecursor|Youngolepis praecursor]]'' (Figure 3) that was found in Yunnan region and North Vietnam, and so common in those regions that the fossils were frequently used as gifts to visitors. Chang had already published the discovery in January 1981.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Mi-Man|last2=Xu|first2=Xiao-Bei|date=1981-01-20|title=A new crossopterygian, Youngolepis praecursor, gen. et sp. nov., from Lower Devonian of E. Yunnan, China|url=https://www.sciengine.com/Math%20A0/doi/10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|journal=Scientia Sinica|language=en-US|volume=24|issue=1|pages=89–99|doi=10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|issn=1000-0002}}</ref> Janvier told Gupta to hold their publication, but eventually got it published in 1982 with a few modifications based on Chang's paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1982|title=An osteolepid fish from the middle Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515982|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=8|pages=66–80}}</ref><ref name=":47">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1990|title=A response to the co-authors|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343307a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=307–308|doi=10.1038/343307a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> With an unsettled mind on the origin of the Himalayan fossil, Janvier reported a note of concern in ''Bulletin of the Indian Geologists Association''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1981|title=Remarks on an osteolepid fish from the Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8320471315|journal=Bulletin Indian Geologists' Association|volume=141|page=81}}</ref> remarking that Chang's and Gupta's specimens were "strikingly similar."<ref name=":5" /> Although Gupta avowed that he had never been to the fossil site in China,<ref name=":47" /> it was known that he had a trip to China just before going to France. Janvier was convinced that Gupta had fooled him: "Now, there is no evidence that Gupta brought the fish fossil with him from China, but I'm 99% sure he did."<ref name=":02" /> == The exposé == === Calgary symposium === [[File:Ophiceras sakuntala Trias inf Himalaya.jpg|thumb|Genuine ammonoid fossil, ''Ophiceras sakuntala'', from the Himalayas. [Ghedo, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]] ]] Gupta's practice of fakery was first publicly exposed at the "International Symposium on the Devonian System" held in Calgary, Canada from 17 to 20 August 1987.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/6935963|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last1=McMillan|first1=N. J.|last2=Embry|first2=A. F.|last3=Glass|first3=D. J.|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=581–588}}</ref> The week before, Talent came across a paper by Gupta and German palaeontologist [[w:Heinrich_Karl_Erben|Heinrich Karl Erben]] (Institut für Paläontologie, Bonn) published in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' in 1983 reporting a series of Devonian ammonoids from Himachal Pradesh (Figure 4 is an example of such an ammonoid).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|bibcode=1983PalZ...57...93G|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> When Talent presented his own research at the symposium,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last=Mawson, R.; Talent, J. A.; Bear, V. C.; Brock, G. A.; Farrell, J. R.; Hyland, K. A.; Pyemont, B. D.; Sloan, T. R.; Sorrentino, L; Stewart, M. I.; Trotter, J. A.; Wilson, G. A.; Simpson A. G.|vauthors=|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=485−527}}</ref> he added a discussion on the Himalayan fossils, including Gupta's ammonoids and those from Morocco displaying them side by side on the screen;<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> they appeared "exactly the same".<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another case of identical fossils presented by Talent was from Gupta's accounts of two conodonts in 1975, allegedly collected from two sites 600 kilometres apart and described in two different papers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Geoforensics/ckaYWK-ziToC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA225&printsec=frontcover|title=Geoforensics|last=Ruffell|first=Alastair|last2=McKinley|first2=Jennifer|date=2008-08-06|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-75884-7|page=225|language=en}}</ref> One scientist pointed to Gupta, who was sitting in the front row, and said: "Well, how do you explain having exactly the same fossils in two localities 600 kilometres apart?" An infuriated Gupta stormed out of the room and re-entered clenching his fist as he tried to punch Talent, but was prevented by other participants.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Linse|first=Pat|last2=Smith|first2=Jim W. W.|last3=Loxton|first3=Daniel|last4=Loxton|first4=Jason|date=2011-09-22|title=Fossil fakes: Part two|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA280092459&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10639330&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon~f1ff51e6&aty=open-web-entry|journal=Skeptic (Altadena, CA)|language=English|volume=17|issue=1|pages=64B–64B}}</ref> He shouted to the organisers, demanding the list of all participants and Talent's manuscript.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The committee of the Calgary symposium informed the Vice Chancellor of Panjab University of the incident as well as associated issues with Gupta's research, but no action appeared to be taken.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> In spite of the public exposition, only fossil experts at the symposium knew of the case, and Gupta continued to publish research papers.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === ''Courier'' publication === The director of [[w:Naturmuseum_Senckenberg|Naturmuseum Senckenberg]] in Frankfurt, Germany, had attended the Calgary symposium and asked Talent to allow publication of his presentation, who agreed.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The account was published in the serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' as a 50-page article "Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies" in 1988. Pickett with Rajendra Kumar Goel and Arvind Kumar Jain of the University of Roorkee (now [[w:IIT_Roorkee|IIT Roorkee]]), India, co-authored the paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Talent|first1=John A.|last2=Goel|first2=Rajendra K.|last3=Jain|first3=Arvind K.|last4=Pickett|first4=John W.|date=1988-11-01|title=Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783510611591/Silurian-and-Devonian-of-India-Nepal-and-Bhutan-Biostratigraphic-and-Palaeobiogeographic-Anomalies|journal=Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg|language=en|volume=106|pages=1–57|issn=0341-4116|access-date=2023-12-29}}</ref> The document exposed over a hundred fossil frauds in Gupta's research involving five books and 458 articles, published with 128 co-authors during 25 years.<ref name=":48">{{Cite journal|last=Molina|first=Eustoquio|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta: El fraude de los fósiles reciclados abre el debate en el seno de la comunidad científica|url=https://www.academia.edu/9281608/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta_El_fraude_de_los_f%C3%B3siles_reciclados_abre_el_debate_en_el_seno_de_la_comunidad_cient%C3%ADfica|journal=La Alternativa Racional|language=Spanish|volume=33|pages=23–25}}</ref> However, the ''Courier'' had a limited circulation and the article was not widely read.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === Publications in ''Nature'' and ''Science'' === The case became a global news when ''Nature'' invited Talent to publish a summary of the ''Courier'' article. In a three-page commentary, Talent provided reasons to suspect that Gupta's fossils were bought, stolen or received as gifts from various parts of the world, and not authentically collected from the Himalayan region,<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> and that Gupta's research was a "quagmire of palaeontological disinformation."<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Published on 20 April 1989 issue, Talent's headline in ''Nature'' runs "The case of the peripatetic fossils",<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref> and the commentary concluded as follows:<blockquote>Rhinos in Rio? Kangaroos in Kashmir? Well, something as remarkable biogeographically is said to have occurred. At first sight it might appear that a whole circus of exotica – mainly invertebrate – was let loose and fossilized seriatim in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sequences of the Himalayas. Earth scientists in general, and palaeontologists in particular, have blissfully assumed that, apart from the [[w:Piltdown_Man|Piltdown Man]], their science was largely free from attempts to pollute the literature. There have been cases of practical jokes, and examples of misappropriation of materials by individuals over-eager to publish. But compared with the cornucopia of items disgorged into the stratigraphy of the Himalayan region over the past 25 years, such instances are mere bagatelles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref></blockquote>It immediately prompted media investigations. The most influential was from ''[[w:Science_(journal)|Science]]'' as its news editor [[w:Roger_Lewin|Roger Lewin]] made journalistic enquiry contacting the scientists involved. Lewin published his report on 21 April 1989, which included the following from Talent:<blockquote>The database for the Silurian and Devonian of the Himalaya has become so extensively marred by error, inconsistency and implausibility as to throw grave doubts on the scientific validity of any conclusions that might be drawn from it. An appropriate way to approach this problem and clarify many of the questions raised would be through an independent fact-finding commission set up to probe most of the legions of paleontologically anomalous and suspect reports.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref></blockquote>The story became widely known from ''Nature'' and ''Science'' articles, more so by a series of four ''Nature'' articles titled "the peripatetic fossils" between 1989 and 1990; a defence from Gupta,<ref name=":24" /> comments by Arun Deep Ahluwalia, S B Bhatia, Udai K Bassi, and Philippe Janvier<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":23"/><ref name=":51"/><ref name=":5"/> and John Bruce Waterhouse,<ref name=":28" /> and last by Talent's summary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1990|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 5|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343405a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=405–406|doi=10.1038/343405a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> It was these reports that brought the case to an international level.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> == The fossils == === Conodonts === The principal fossils of dispute were the conodonts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruban|first=Dmitry A.|date=2022-06-01|title=A review of the Late Triassic conodont conundrum: survival beyond biotic perturbations|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|journal=Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments|language=en|volume=102|issue=2|pages=373–382|bibcode=2022PdPe..102..373R|doi=10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|issn=1867-1608|s2cid=237366862}}</ref> One of the first and most well-understood conodont fossils was from the Amsdell Creek in New York, USA, which were determined as Devonian in age.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Müller|first=Klaus J.|date=1956|title=Taxonomy, Nomenclature, Orientation, and Stratigraphic Evaluation of Conodonts|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1300586|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=30|issue=6|pages=1324–1340|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1300586}}</ref> With the help of English geologists [[w:Frank_H._T._Rhodes|Frank H. T. Rhodes]] and R. L. Austin, Gupta reported a discovery titled "Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir" in ''Nature'' in 1967,<ref name=":1" /> the first conodont report from India,<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Forensic_Geoscience/w35I2xvUQioC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA321&printsec=frontcover|title=An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience|last=Bergslien|first=Elisa|date=2012-03-23|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9833-5|page=321|language=en}}</ref> and continued to discover several conodonts in and around Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Die Stratigraphie der alpin-mediterranen Trias / The Stratigraphy of the Alpine-Mediterranean Triassic|last=Gupta|first=V.|date=1974|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7091-4497-8|editor-last=Zapfe|editor-first=Helmuth|series=Schriftenreihe der Erdwissenschaftlichen Kommissionen|volume=2|location=Vienna|pages=97–99|language=en|chapter=Permo-Triassic Boundary in the Himalaya|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Carboniferous of the World|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Waterhouse|first2=J.B.|last3=Bhargava|first3=O.N.|date=1983|publisher=IGME|isbn=978-84-398-5670-2|editor-last=Días|editor-first=Carlos Martínez|pages=147–151|language=en|chapter=Indian Subcontinent|editor-last2=España|editor-first2=Instituto Geológico y Minero de|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC81wR8LXWoC&dq=Gupta+conodonts+1967&pg=PA147}}</ref> According to Talent, it is "statistically beyond the bounds of possibility<nowiki>'' that Devonian conodonts were present in the Himalayas, and that Gupta'</nowiki>s specimens probably were those of the Amsdell Creek.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Klapper also concurred, saying, "[It] is impossible to be 100% certain that the conodonts Gupta reports on come from New York and not the Himalayas as he claims, but I am as certain as I can be."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Gary D. Webster, Carl B. Rexroad and Talent published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers" in 1993 based on an investigation of 19 of Gupta's collaborators. They found that Gupta recycled his conodont reports in 15 publications.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|last2=Rexroad|first2=Carl B.|last3=Talent|first3=John A.|date=1993-05-01|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022336000036933/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=486–493|doi=10.1017/S0022336000036933|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1306034|s2cid=130317390}}</ref> === Ammonoids === Talent was convinced that Gupta's ammonoid specimens originally came from a fossil site near Erfoud, Morocco. The characteristic features showed their identity. Talent had come across the same Moroccan ammonoids at the fossil shop in Paris and noticed that they exactly matched the images Gupta had used in his publications.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He also discovered that Gupta had claimed the source of the conodonts and ammonoids as from the same rock strata, and such could not have been the case since the two groups of animals lived 15 million years apart.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By May 1989, Gupta emphatically wrote Erben that the fossils were authentically of the Himalayas, to which Erben was inclined to make a statement in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' defending his position, stating: "Whatever the truth in this highly detestable affair may be, my personal responsibility in the paper under discussion has been, and still is, restricted to its taxonomical and morphological parts as well as to the illustrations."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=H. K.|date=1989-12-01|title=Statement concerning a paper on Devonian allegedly Himalayan ammonoids|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02989519|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=335|bibcode=1989PalZ...63..335E|doi=10.1007/BF02989519|s2cid=129369116}}</ref> Webster published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989" in 1991 and asserted that the observation "leaves no doubt that these fraudulent practices were knowingly continued over the past 25 years." He found 28 of Gupta's papers containing dubious information on the fossil discoveries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|date=1991-11-25|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S002233600003331X/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=65|issue=6|pages=1006–1008|doi=10.1017/S002233600003331X|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1305833|s2cid=132465759}}</ref> === Gupta's strategy === Gupta was careful in his research publications and would ask eminent scientists to collaborate. He would provide the fossils with the basic geological details and his collaborators made the fossil identification, so that they became "unsuspecting partners in crime," as Bhargava lamented,<ref name=":34" /> or unwitting "partners in the deception", according to Bangalore Puttaiya Radhakrishna, editor of the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India.''<ref name=":26" /> As in the case of his first major publication in ''Nature'' in 1967, Gupta was able to convince Rhodes from the [[w:University_College_of_Swansea|University College of Swansea]] (later president of [[w:Cornell_University|Cornell University]]) and Austin from the [[w:University_of_Southampton|University of Southampton]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Gary Webster at [[w:Washington_State_University|Washington State University]] had coauthored nine of Gupta's papers and asserted that his identification of the [[w:Crinoid|crinoid]] fossils were genuine, but later conceded that he was "virtually certain" they were obtained from places other than the Himalayas. He declared that Gupta "willfully tried to dupe the scientific community.<nowiki>''</nowiki><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By 1989, Gupta had collaborated with 128 scientists around the world, including Berry, Director of the University of California, Berkeley's Museum of Paleontology,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> Kiril J. Budurov of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Budurov|first1=K. J.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Kachroo|first3=R. K.|date=1984-08-01|title=Some Permian Conodonts from the Zewan Formation, Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65298|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=8|pages=533–536|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Michael E. Brookfield of the University of Guelph in Ontario,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brookfield|first1=M. E.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1988|title=The Devonian of Northern Gondwanaland: A Himalayan Viewpoint and Terrane Analysis|url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg_sp/data/014/014001/579_cspgsp014a0579.htm|journal=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System — Memoir 14|language=en-US|volume=1|pages=579–589}}</ref> Erben,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> Gerhard R. Fuchs of the Geological Survey of Austria,<ref name=":44">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Andrzej Gaździcki of the Polish Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gaździcki|first1=Andrzej|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1981|title=Triassic foraminifers Involutinidae from West Carpathians and Himalayas - its stratigraphic and paleobiogeographic implications|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283854385|journal=Bulletin - Geological Society of India|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101–106}}</ref> Janvier,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janvier|first=Philippe|date=1997|title=In retrospect chosen by Philippe Janvier|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=389|issue=6652|pages=688|doi=10.1038/39519|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref> Makoto Kato of Hokkaido University,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kato|first1=Makoto|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa Jit|date=1989|title=Late Palaeozoic Corals from the Himalayas|url=https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/36757|journal=Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. Series 4, Geology and Mineralogy|volume=22|issue=3|pages=399–424|issn=0018-3474}}</ref> Rhodes,<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Jovan Stöcklin from Zurich,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Stöcklin|first2=J.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy and structure of the Phulchauki-Chandragiri area, Nepal|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=7|pages=263−275}}</ref> Geneviève Termier of the University of Paris,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Termier|first2=Geneviere|date=1983-04-01|title=Middle Devonian Corals from Central Bhutan|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65268|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=212–215|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Susan Turner of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Turner|first2=Susan|date=1973|title=Oldest Indian Fish|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=110|issue=5|pages=483–484|doi=10.1017/S001675680003627X|issn=1469-5081|doi-access=free}}</ref> Waterhouse of the University of Queensland,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waterhouse|first1=J. B.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1979-09-01|title=Early Permian Fossils from Southern Tibet, Like Faunas from Peninsular India and Lesser Himalayas of Garhwal|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64587|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=20|issue=9|pages=461–464|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> and Gary Dean Webster of the Washington State University.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Webster|first2=G.D.|date=1980|title=Palaeozoic crinoids from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120347802|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=83|issue=1|pages=1−18}}</ref> Gupta's most prolific foreign collaborator was Waterhouse who co-authored 19 research papers,<ref name=":48" /> followed by Webster with nine papers.<ref name=":0" /> Gupta's intention in associating with notable scientists was manifest when he defended his works, writing in ''Nature'' that it "is seldom possible to do fieldwork in the Himalayas by oneself" and gave a list of scientists he had teamed up with.<ref name=":24" /> He also stressed repeatedly that he sought experts from various countries to corroborate his findings.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":41" /> In his ''Nature'' commentary, he stated that the graptolites reported in his earliest works''<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":38" />'' were substantiated by Sir [[w:Cyril_James_Stubblefield|Cyril James Stubblefield]], then director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and that the fossil site had been verified by his doctoral supervisor Sahni in October 1964. Sahni's companions and travel records indicated that he did visit Kashmir at the time indicated but only to attend a scientific seminar. As Ashok Sahni, son of Sahni and colleague of Gupta, vouchsafed the alibi: "Sahni neither visited the graptolite localities nor did he accompany the post-seminar field excursion."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sahni|first=Ashoki|date=1989-11|title=Sahni visit denied|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/342338c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=342|issue=6248|pages=338–338|doi=10.1038/342338c0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In another case, Gupta investigated the lower Phuchauki in Nepal with Vinod Singh Chhetri from the Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, in 1974. He published four solo papers between 1975 and 1976 including three on conodont finds. In 1977, he published the geological study in ''Chayanica Geologica'' with Chhetri's name on it but without the latter's knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Chhetri|first2=V.S.|date=1977|title=Geology of the area around Phulchauki, Kathmandu, Nepal|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133−146}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Dangol|first2=Gopal M. S.|last3=Chhetri|first3=Vinod Singh|date=1991-07-01|title=Biostratigraphic reports - Spurious and Dubious - from Nepal|url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JNGS/article/view/32577|journal=Journal of Nepal Geological Society|volume=7|doi=10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32577|issn=2676-1378}}</ref> When Chhetri came to know of the publication, he requested Gupta for the data and fossil specimens so that he could confirm them; he never got a response.<ref name=":43" /> Gupta continued to report other fossils from different locations of Nepal, including a series of mammals from Gidhniya in western Nepal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa J.|date=1984-01-01|title=Plio-pleistocene mammals from Gidhniya village Western Nepal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699584800212|journal=Geobios|volume=17|issue=4|pages=493–499|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(84)80021-2|issn=0016-6995}}</ref> Chhetri affirmed that Gupta never explored Nepal other than Phuchauki (not even the upper area, contrary to Gupta's report<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1975|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Phulchauki, Nepal|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/download/13323/12468/39437&ved|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=5|pages=153−168}}</ref>), and never collected any fossil of interest.<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":43" /> To make the matter even more convoluted, Talent discovered from Ziegler that he had trained Gupta on conodont analysis at Marburg. Ziegler recalled Gupta having conodonts similar to those of Amsdell Creek, and asked why he was interested in the American fossils, the latter phlegmatically answered that they were from Nepal. That was a year before Gupta's Nepal exploration, in 1973.<ref name=":43" /> One modus operandi of Gupta was that he kept the locations of the fossils vague so that it would be difficult for peers to vindicate or refute the reports.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":31" /> When other scientists investigated, they never found the exact location or the fossils in the area from where they were allegedly collected.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta had shrewdly justified that the Indian Government restricted the use of detailed topographic or army maps for political and strategic reasons around the Himalayas,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and the maps were especially restricted for foreigners.<ref name=":41" /> He once said: "As an Indian, it is not possible for me to take such liberties [disclosing Himalayan maps to foreign scientists] and to go against the 'Law of the Land'."<ref name=":50">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1990-06-01|title=Discussion: Comments by V. J. Gupta|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66368|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=649–655|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta was also an unapologetic plagiarist and thief. His 1966 thesis contained images of coral fossils from the 1908<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1908|title=I.—Sedgwick Museum Notes: New Fossils from the Haverford-west District. VIII|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/abs/isedgwick-museum-notes-new-fossils-from-the-haverfordwest-district-viii/C15E6E01673B105A0B25F77ADD333E73|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=5|issue=10|pages=433–436|doi=10.1017/S0016756800122368|issn=1469-5081}}</ref> and 1912<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAWvQAAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ordovician and Silurian Fossils from the Central Himalayas|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1912|publisher=Geological Survey|language=en}}</ref> reports of [[w:Frederick_Richard_Cowper_Reed|Frederick Richard Cowper Reed]], a British geologist who surveyed the Himalayas and Burma (now Myanmar). The same images from Reed were used in two of Gupta's papers published in the ''Panjab University Research Bulletin'', in volumes 20 and 21. Gupta's coral fossils most likely came from the Amsdell Creek specimens maintained at the [[w:Aberystwyth_University|Aberystwyth University]] in Wales,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wyatt|first=Antony R.|date=1990-06-01|title=V. J. Gupta and the Aberystwyth Fossil Collections|url=https://indianjournalofcapitalmarkets.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66328|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=587–592|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> where he had done a research work in 1967.<ref name=":50" /> In 1992, researchers at the Aberystwyth University intimated to ''Nature'' that Gupta's fossils were identical to those missing from their collection.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> One of Brock's observations was that Gupta had used fossil images in several instances from the reports of British geologists in the early 20th century: "And all that Gupta had done was take some scissors and cut out the specimens, put them down on a new plate with a new number on them and claim them as his own – and these were samples from somewhere very different, from parts of Somalia."<ref name=":3" /> In a ''Nature'' commentary, Ahluwalia, Gupta's colleague and co-author in several papers,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=Arun D.|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa J.|date=1988-01-01|title=Tal Formation of Himalaya - a century old stratigraphic riddle nearing solution|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/nos/detail/21/86659/Tal_Formation_of_Himalaya_a_century_old_stratigraphic_riddle_nearing_solution|journal=Newsletters on Stratigraphy|language=en|pages=49–58|doi=10.1127/nos/21/1989/49}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> admitted that Talent's accusations were valid.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/At_The_Fringes_Of_Science/rwHFDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA135&printsec=frontcover|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|location=New York/London|pages=135−136|language=en}}</ref> He disclosed that once during the visit of their Bulgarian friend Budurov (whom Gupta later remarked as the "most callous" collaborator<ref name=":47" />) to the Panjab University in 1980, Gupta apparently planted conodont fossils in the limestone samples. As Budurov was about to examine the tiny fossils, Gupta insisted that he prepare fresh samples to let the fossils settle down in a solution. Ahluwalia recollected that he had not seen the fossils from that particular sample earlier, but as Gupta "prepared" it, numerous conodonts became visible. Ahluwalia did not suspect any misdeed at the time but in hindsight was "rather embarrassed at having initially missed the assemblage, but was happy at the 'discovery'."<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Upper Palaeozoic of Lahul-Spiti |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341013a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=13–15|doi=10.1038/341013a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The three of them published the discovery in two articles in 1982.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> Following Talent's allegations, Ahluwalia later processed the original rock sample and could find no fossil at all. He also cited several instances of fossils collected and reported from sites which Gupta apparently never explored.<ref name=":21"/> Another colleague, Shashi Bhushan Bhatia recalled his suspicion when Gupta told him that the rock samples from [[w:Kurig|Kurig]] were of Devonian, and gave Bhatia [[w:Ostracod|ostracod]] fossils that he claimed were from the same sediments. Bhatia saw two irregularities. One, his own exploration of the same site gave a much younger geological age, [[w:Permo-Carboniferous|Permo-Carboniferous]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and he could not recall a single instance of Gupta visiting Kurig. In another, as Gupta requested, Bhatia took the samples in 1972 to the [[w:British_Museum_of_Natural_History|British Museum of Natural History in London]]. There, Bhatia analysed the specimens and found that they were the same as those from [[w:Haragan_Formation|Haragan Formation]] in Oklahoma.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Early Devonian ostracodes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–15|doi=10.1038/341015a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Yet, in good faith, he, Jain and Gupta reported the discovery of the Himalayan ostracod in 1982.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B|last2=Jain|first2=S. P.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|date=1982|title=Lower Devonian ostracode fauna from Spiti and its palaeobiogeographical significance|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9423200|journal=Miscellaneous publication - Geological survey of India|pages=283–293|issn=0579-4706|via=Pascal and Francis}}</ref> When the controversy broke out in 1989, Bhatia consulted Robert Folke Lundin at [[w:Arizona_State_University|Arizona State University]], who confirmed that the Himalayan ostracods were the same as the American specimens,<ref name=":23"/> which he had described in 1968.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://libcat.colorado.edu/Record/b2860582/Details?sid=21552470|title=Ostracodes of the Haragan formation (Devonian) in Oklahoma|last=Lundin|first=Robert F.|date=1968|publisher=University of Oklahoma|series=Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin|location=|pages=116}}</ref> On the same sediments, another collaborator, Udai K. Bassi of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]], later verified that Kurig does not contain Devonian deposits but only of a much younger [[w:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]] sediment,<ref name=":51">{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=Udai K. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – The Kinnaur region |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015b0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–16|doi=10.1038/341015b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and that the border and village records in which visitors are normally listed did not have any mention of Gupta visiting the site.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In the same vein, Gupta and Erben reported in 1983 the occurrance of Carnian (298 to 272 million years old) conodonts and ammonoids from Khimokul La.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|issn=1236-9874}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1983-03-01|title=Carnian Conodonts from Tidong Valley, Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65193|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=156–158|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Bassi, who had surveyed the area several times, attested that there is no Carnian sediment there and that the check-post register or the villagers had no record of Gupta, Erben or any foreigner.<ref name=":51" /> == Reactions == Talent expressed that Gupta "inundated geological and biogeographical literature of the Himalayas with a blizzard of disinformation so extensive as to render the literature almost useless."<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> Gupta said to ''[[w:The_New_York_Times|The New York Times]]'' that he had invited Talent to Panjab University and the Himalayan sites to verify the research findings following the Calgary incident,<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> but that Talent had declined.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In trying to undermine the accusations, he described the affair as "minor disagreements over taxonomy among experts."<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Indian palaeontology under a cloud|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093010|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=1|pages=13–13|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24093010}}</ref> He defended himself by claiming Talent<nowiki>'s allegations as "'malicious bias and professional jealousy'' based on lies that were "building up a story without any basis.'' He added, ''We've had differences for the past 20 years, and he's trying to cash in on them.'' Talent admitted that he did reject Gupta'</nowiki>s invitation to visit Panjab University as he felt it more appropriate for independent investigations from other scientists to make inspections.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the ''Science'' report, Webster admitted having already had the information on the similarity between the Himalayan fossils and those in America and Europe, especially the crinoids which were found only in the United States. Commenting on Talent's Calgary speech, he conceded: "I am now virtually certain that most of these specimens did come from places other than the Himalayas. I certainly should have been more wary."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Janvier also stated that he had asked Gupta to make site expedition himself where the fossils were collected, to which Gupta replied that it was not possible due to political reasons. In his commentary "Breakdown of trust" in ''Nature'', he decried the lack of awareness on scientific frauds and wrote: "The Gupta case may just be a 'big noise'."<ref name=":5"/> Erben responded to Lewin's report claiming his innocence in ''Science'', while admitting that Talent could be right, he blamed him for "zealous exaggerations" as Talent trusted a Paris shopkeeper rather than him. While avowing that he and Gupta were qualified scientists, he disparaged Talent as "without qualifications". He retorted: "However, while really cogent evidence is, indeed, lacking, the circumstantial evidence assembled by Talent seems to be rather convincing."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=Heinrich K.|date=1989-09-15|title=Carelessness, or Good Faith?|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=245|issue=4923|pages=1165–1166|doi=10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Talent replied, blaming Erben for ignoring or not being aware of a series of fossils Gupta produced and for trying to downplay the fraud allegations. He mentioned that the Morroccon-type ammonoids were available in large supplies not only in Paris, but also in Sydney, Australia, which Erben could have investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-11-10|title=The "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|journal=Science|language=en|volume=246|issue=4931|pages=740–741|doi=10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=239850370}}</ref> Writing in ''Nature'', Gupta made a defensive response in September 1989. He upheld that most of his explorations were done with other researchers and that he was not alone in visiting the allegedly dubious sites. Referring to the Devonian fish which he described with Janvier in 1982, he asserted that he had never met Chang or visited her institute so that the specimen as a gift was an implausibility.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> However, he made a misinterpretation of Lewin's report which simply said that Chang had explained the availability of the fossils in China and North Vietnam.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He made a scathing remark:<blockquote>John Talent has made sweeping pronouncements on Himalayan geology. Yet he is not an authority on the subject. I can only conclude that his attack on me was made for two reasons – to draw attention to himself and to deflect criticism of his own failure to contribute to Himalayan geology.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref></blockquote>A. K. Prasad, then director of Gupta's department at Panjab University, backed up Gupta, saying that Talent's accusation was "a conspiracy to denigrate a top Indian scientist".<ref name=":41">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1989-04-01|title=Gupta affirms authenticity|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338694a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6218|pages=694–694|doi=10.1038/338694a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> On the other hand, Ahluwalia affirmed that the fossils were recycled and assigned made-up localities, commenting that "most of the doubts expressed by Talent are well-founded" and that it was a "great embarrassment" that made him want to retract the published reports which he and Budurov co-authored.<ref name=":21" /> Expressing his dismay on revealing Gupta's manipulation of data and fabricated specimens in a report he co-authored about the discovery of a conodont, ''Neogondollela regale'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=U. K.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Chopra|first3=S.|last4=Budurov|first4=K. J.|last5=Ahluwalia|first5=A. D.|date=1988|title=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|url=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|journal=Indian Geologists' Association Bulletin|volume=212|pages=155−158}}</ref> Bassi considered withdrawal of the paper.<ref name=":51" /> The editor of ''Nature'' found Gupta's commentary unimpressive, noting that "close readings of the accusations and responses leaves the impression that Gupta's defence is flimsy."<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> The only collaborator to stand up for Gupta was Waterhouse. Calling Talent's accusation "A case of exaggeration",<ref name=":28" /> Waterhouse stated that Gupta's specimens were definitely collected from the Himalayas.<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> He asserted that the Himalayan research was reported with accurate locations, as he had verified the fossils and explored the fossil sites himself. He criticised Talent for never examining first-hand the actual fossils, and Ahluwalia for misrepresenting some of the reports. He defended Gupta by saying there could have been a bit of sloppy field and laboratory work<ref name=":46" /> but no fraudulent intention, while admitting that Gupta's geological descriptions (stratigraphy) were "often too coarse and too rushed." Commenting in ''Nature'', he wrote: "I can personally vouch that much of Gupta's materials emphatically came from the Himalayas... The 'case' against Gupta is remarkably rich in bold metaphors and unproven assertions, and somewhat thin in scientific analysis."<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Waterhouse|first=J. B.|date=1990-01-25|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 4|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343305a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=305–307|doi=10.1038/343305a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Panjab University issued a circular in 1990 that "it is interested not in brushing the controversy under the carpet, but arriving at the truth." It sought help from major authorities including the [[w:University_Grants_Commission_(India)|University Grants Commission]], [[w:Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research|Indian Council of Medical Research]], [[w:Indian_National_Science_Academy|Indian National Science Academy]], [[w:Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research|Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[w:Wadia_Institute_of_Himalayan_Geology|Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology]], [[w:Department_of_Science_and_Technology_(India)|Department of Science and Technology]], and [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990|title=Panjab University defends itself in Gupta affair|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24092918|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=5|pages=244–244|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Then in March that year, the university took a controversial decision by instituting a scientific expedition team,<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> to be led by Gupta. The [[w:Geological_Society_of_India|Geological Society of India]] was disappointed by the proposal, as Radhakrishna remarked: "We fail to understand why Gupta should have been asked to lead the expedition. Besides, it is beyond our comprehension as to how allegations of recycling can be proved or disproved in the field."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Inaction on a Himalayan scandal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093708|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=9|pages=441–441|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The Geological Survey of India<ref name=":13" />{{Efn|Jayaraman mistook Geological Survey of India for Geological Society of India.}} and the Society for Scientific Values (led by [[w:Autar_Singh_Paintal|Autar Singh Paintal]]) independently organized a one-week expedition to the Himalayan fossil sites. Gupta refrained from the expedition due to "poor health".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1990-09-27|title=Down from the mountain|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/347318b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=347|issue=6291|pages=318–318|doi=10.1038/347318b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The investigators submitted their reports to Panjab University in December 1990. In February 1991, the university accepted the allegations and Gupta was momentarily suspended from service the next month.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holden|first=Constance|date=1991-03-15|title=Indian geologist suspended|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|journal=Science|language=en|volume=251|issue=4999|pages=1310–1310|doi=10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|issn=0036-8075|jstor=2875514}}</ref> The report of the Society for Scientific Values was kept confidential.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The Indian National Science Academy also conducted an independent investigation but failed to come up with a definitive conclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-02-01|title=Scandal upon scandal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343396a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=396–396|doi=10.1038/343396a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-03-01|title=Gupta takes to the hills|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/344187a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=344|issue=6263|pages=187–187|doi=10.1038/344187a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> === Geological Society of India === The Geological Society of India, which claimed that it normally avoids controversial matters for publications in its ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'', fearing that "the accusations [against Gupta] could be construed as quiescence" was obliged to publish two articles from Talent further damning the research malpractices of Gupta.<ref name=":26"/> In the first paper published in December 1989, Talent's team gave an elaborate account of fossil recycling and mismatching of the fossil sources.<ref name=":39">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Kato|first4=Makato|last5=Morante|first5=Richard|last6=Talent|first6=Ross C.|date=1989-12-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologic Database Polluted by Recycling and Other Anomalies|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66405|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=34|issue=6|pages=575–586|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> In the next article published in June 1990, details of Gupta's plagiarisms were documented.<ref name=":40">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Gaetani|first4=Maurizio|last5=Jell|first5=Peter A.|last6=Mawson|first6=Ruth|last7=Talent|first7=Ross C.|last8=Webster|first8=Gary D.|date=1990-06-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologie Database Polluted: Plagiarism and Other Anomalies|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66325|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=569–585|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> As Ian Anderson reported in ''[[w:New_Scientist|New Scientist]]'', the Geological Society of India made a "controversial move" by issuing an [[w:Expression_of_concern|expression of concern]], stating that "the fossil finds of V J Gupta are not reliable", although they did not formally retract any of Gupta's papers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917551-600-himalayan-scandal-rocks-indian-science/|title=Himalayan scandal rocks Indian science|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1991-02-01|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The society reassessed Gupta's papers and found "several discrepancies lending support to the accusations levelled against V. J. Gupta" in 19 publications.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> The society's scientists visited seven localities in the Himalayas from where Gupta claimed to have collected Devonian fossils, but found no such evidence,<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> declaring "the falsification of facts attempted by Gupta."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> They requested Gupta for access to his specimen collections, research notes and laboratory register for verification, but never received any response.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Gupta's fossils may be Himalayan fakes, says GSI|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093206|journal=Current Science|volume=60|issue=3|pages=138–138|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The report titled "The Himalayan Fossil Controversy" was issued on 1 January 1991, condemning Gupta's works as "fictitious and based on spurious fossils" and "incomplete bordering on disinformation."<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It ran the pronouncements:<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref><blockquote> * The most glaring deficiency noticed in nearly all the papers is the absence of precise locality information. Subsequent field checks by officers of the Geological Survey of India and some of Gupta's own colleagues have failed to reveal not only the fossils, but also rock formations stated to have been present in the area... He [Gupta] has failed to produce the originals of the recycled fossils with their registration number, date of collection, field description as entered in Field Note Books and Laboratory Registers and such other evidences which could confirm the genuineness of his fossil collections. * It is obvious from the volume of evidence that has now been collected that the fossil finds of V. J. Gupta are not reliable, that there are internal inconsistencies, that the data is incomplete bordering on disinformation. * The Society has no other alternative but to publish the evaluation report with the recommendation that ''the incomplete and doubtful fossil records as published in the Journal and listed in the enclosed report be ignored till such time that independent proof is forthcoming of the in situ existence of the fossils'' [emphasis in original]. </blockquote> == Consequences == The Panjab University Vice Chancellor [[w:Ram_Prakash_Bambah|Ram Prakash Bambah]] issued Gupta's suspension order in February 1991.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> As [[w:Triloki_Nath_Kapoor|Triloki Nath Kapoor]] soon replaced him, Gupta was reinstated in January 1992.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maddox|first=John|date=1992-02-01|title=Back from the dead|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355578c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6361|pages=578–578|doi=10.1038/355578c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> That year, the University Grants Commission of India stopped its funding to Gupta,<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":45">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994|title=Fossil inquiry finds Indian geologist guilty of plagiarism|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/369698b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=369|issue=6483|pages=698–698|doi=10.1038/369698b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> and ''Nature'' reported a note of disappointment over Gupta's reinstallation, calling it an "Indian rope trick".<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":49">{{Cite journal|date=1994|title=Another rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371726a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6500|pages=726–726|doi=10.1038/371726a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The resurgent controversy compelled Kapoor for a proper action.<ref name=":45" /> The affair was investigated in an official inquiry led by [[w:Man_Mohan_Singh_Gujral|Man Mohan Singh Gujral]], the retired Chief Justice of the Sikkim High Court.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> The inquiry started in February 1992 and lasted two years with the final report submitted in April 1994. Gupta could not make any evidential rebuttal, resorting to lame pretexts such as claiming that he did not have a good memory of his field research and never kept field notes.<ref name=":45" /> The verdict found Gupta guilty of all charges including data recycling, plagiarism, concocting research locations and conning other scientists.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Panjab University imposed three penalties on Gupta: (1) he was officially reprimanded; (1) he was debarred from administrative positions, his becoming a dean which was due that year was stayed;<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> and (3) his annual increments of salary were ceased.<ref name=":36">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1996-04-01|title=Court allows fossil fraudster to return|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/380570b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=380|issue=6575|pages=570–570|doi=10.1038/380570b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref name=":49" /> In 1993, the UGC had rescinded Gupta's department from the status of the Centre of Advanced Study in Palaeontology and Himalayan Geology.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta's dismissal from the Panjab University was discussed by the Syndicate meeting on 30 June 1994, but no decision was made and the case was deferred to the Senate.<ref name=":14" /> The Senate meeting on 24 September made a majority decision, 50 out of 55, that Gupta was not to be discharged; only five were in favour of a dismissal.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994-09-01|title=Gupta censured — but keeps his job|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371368b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6496|pages=368–368|doi=10.1038/371368b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta was however restricted from teaching palaeontology,<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> and was assigned a course in environmental and ground water geology.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was allowed to continue supervising research students.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Pressured by the academic community and public outcries, the university once again brought back Gupta's expulsion case in 1996. When Gupta knew his case was coming up in a special meeting of the Senate to be held on 17 March, he submitted a letter of resignation for voluntary retirement on 1 March. He requested cancellation of the Senate meeting. However, [[w:Kocheril_Raman_Narayanan|Kocheril Raman Narayanan]], then Vice President of India and Chancellor of the university, pushed on for the Senate meeting to uphold the integrity of the university. Learning of this insistence, Gupta submitted application for reversal of his resignation three days before the meeting and went to the Punjab and Haryana High Court seeking protection from the outcomes of the Senate meeting. The court made a notification to the university not to exercise further retribution on Gupta. Having no other option, the Senate decided to accept the resignation letter upon which Gupta took it to the court as he had already revoked that resignation. Gupta won the court case and continued his academic duties.<ref name=":36" /> Gupta was still defiant of his research and called the whole ordeal a "conspiracy by foreigners."<ref name=":30" /> He wrote seven books on environmental geology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book-author/vishwa%20jit%20gupta/|title=Books authored by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.exoticindiaart.com|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gettextbooks.com/author/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|title=Books by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.gettextbooks.com|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> Receiving a full pension benefit, he retired (some sources saying a premature superannuation<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref>) in 2002.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite journal|last=Patnaik|first=Pratap R.|date=2016-08-01|title=Scientific Misconduct in India: Causes and Perpetuation|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|journal=Science and Engineering Ethics|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=1245–1249|doi=10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|issn=1471-5546}}</ref>{{Efn|Sources, even from Talent, indicate the claimed retirement in 2004 may not be reliable, and obviously not an "early" retirement.<ref name=":3"/><ref name=":52" />}} Dhiraj Mohan Banerjee of the Geological Survey of India condemned the university's ineptness on Gupta' continued service and superannuation saying that it "reflects the utter poverty of the Indian ethics."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=D.M.|date=2013|title=Himalayan Fossil Fraud- A view from the galleries By S.K. Shah|url=http://palaeontologicalsociety.in/vol58_14/11.pdf|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=58|issue=2|page=263}}</ref> Gupta gave death threats to Talent.<ref name=":22" /> Talent sarcastically revealed in an [[w:ABC_News|ABC News]] interview when asked if he was a hero: "Oh, I don't know about a hero. There were no particularly dire consequences, just a few death threats. The people who were hurt most were in India."<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> One day, a Panjab University technical assistant who had been involved in preparing fossil photographs for Gupta announced that he had evidence of the sources of fossil frauds and was planning to reveal them. He was killed in a hit-and-run accident the following night in front of his residence.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Gupta allegedly offered money to people to physically assault the co-authors of the ''Courier'' paper, Goel and Kumar, according to Talent. A few days later, the mother of one of them [not specified] was the victim of a hit-and-run accident, resulting in both legs and arms and several ribs broken.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Impact == Once recognised as "India's most celebrated fossil scientist",<ref name=":52" /> Gupta has been called "the greatest" and "most notorious paleontological fraudster"<ref name=":6" /> and "Houdini of the Himalayas."<ref name=":28" /> His forgery was often compared with the case of Piltdown Man, sometimes remarked as the greatest hoax in science.<ref name=":48" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-piltdown-forgery-by-j.-s.-weiner|title=The Piltdown Forgery, by J. S. Weiner|date=2017-02-06|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> ''Nature'' announced Talent's observations with a statement that it "will cast a longer shadow" than the Piltdown Man because of its elaborate publications involving numerous discoveries through a quarter of a century, fossils and scientists."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=1989-04-20|title=Himalayan hoax|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/338604a0|journal=Nature|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=604–604|doi=10.1038/338604a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The ''[[w:Chicago_Tribune|Chicago Tribune]]'' conveyed the news as "the most serious case of its kind since the Piltdown hoax."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-04-24-8904060814-story.html|title=Geologist denies allegations of 'Himalayan hoax'|date=1989-04-24|website=Chicago Tribune|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' further explained: "Unlike the case of Piltdown man, in which a single skull was passed off as a fossil of a prehistoric human, this one involves a much broader range of reported finds that have become a part of scientific literature."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Talent described the meaning and consequences of Gupta's research as proving the most contradictory distribution of animals. Given the scale of fossils and the research publications, he described it as "[perhaps] the biggest paleontological fraud of all time."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1994, ''[[w:Down_to_Earth_(magazine)|Down to Earth]]'' reported it as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> Tony Mayer of the [[w:Nanyang_Technological_University|Nanyang Technological University]] in Singapore stated that the affair "is possibly one of the most extensive instances of malpractice in the whole scientific record."<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> Gupta never faced criminal or ethical charges from the university or government authorities. There was an alleged cover-up of the saga by the government.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/layers-of-dust-years-after-himalayan-fossil-hoax-216961|title=Layers of dust years after 'Himalayan fossil hoax'|last=Bharti|first=Vishav|date=2016-04-03|work=The Tribune|access-date=2023-12-27}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> None of Gupta's papers are retracted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://evolutionnews.org/2023/06/fossil-friday-the-gupta-scandal/|title=Recalling the Gupta Scandal|last=Bechly|first=Günter|date=2023-06-09|website=Evolution News|language=en-US|access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> [[w:Pushpa_Mittra_Bhargava|Pushpa Mittra Bhargava]], founder-director of Centre for [[w:Cellular_and_Molecular_Biology|Cellular and Molecular Biology]] in Hyderabad, explained the reason for his resignation from India's largest scientific establishments including Indian National Science Academy, [[w:National_Academy_of_Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], [[w:Indian_Academy_of_Sciences|Indian Academy of Sciences]], and Indian Social Sciences Academy, citing Gupta's case: "Charges of fraudulent claims laid by him [Gupta] on the discovery of Himalayan fossils have been proved, but the only punishment he has been awarded is the stoppage of some of his increments. What is worse is that the person who exposed him is now being harassed and victimised instead of being made a hero."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/interviews/indian-science-is-run-by-a-mafia-26728|title=Indian science is run by a mafia|date=1996-09-30|website=Down to Earth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> Gujral's inquiry concluded that none of Gupta's co-authors were responsible for the misconduct. Ahluwalia who had openly supported Talent's allegations and blamed Gupta of misconducts in research with which he was linked, lived with trepidation of being ousted from his profession.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> He and three colleagues were threatened by the Panjab University to be punished for conspiracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995|title=Gupta associates feel the reflected heat|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/377003b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=377|issue=6544|pages=3–3|doi=10.1038/377003b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> He was denied a chance of promotion in 1995<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995-11-01|title=Geologist 'victimized' for role in fraud case|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/378227b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=378|issue=6554|pages=227–227|doi=10.1038/378227b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and was rejected from a position of professor even after two personal interviews in 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/rejection-not-justified-says-pu-reader/articleshow/250973.cms|title=Rejection not justified, says PU reader|date=2003-10-26|work=The Times of India|access-date=2024-08-27|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The Geological Society of India's secretary Srikantia made a press statement criticising the Panjab University's decision in 1994 as "a mild censure which amounts to a blatant disregard of ethical values... [and] chosen to ignore all the scientific and legal opinions... [referring to Ahluwalia's case] no one with conscience will come forward to speak the truth and the scientific community will be anaesthetized."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> ''Nature'' commented on the failure of Panjab University on the case: "Chandigarh's indulgence of Gupta is a kind of rope trick in that it defies the admittedly unwritten laws that usually apply when people are accused of publishing fraudulent data."<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It subsequently reported that the university was "disgracefully lenient" on Gupta.<ref name=":49" /> === Vindhyan fossil controversy === [[File:Rafatazmia chitrakootensis (SRXTM renderings), Statherian (Vindhyan Supergroup) of Central-India.png|thumb|''Rafatazmia chitrakootensis.'' [Bengtson ''et al''., 2017. [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] Gupta's case had lingering effects on Indian palaeontology and the controversy was blamed as the reason "paleontology lost prestige" in India<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> and that it caused "irreparable damage to Indian science."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Wit|first=Maarten J.|date=1994-03-03|title=Censorship in geology?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/368010c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=368|issue=6466|pages=10|doi=10.1038/368010c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Indian discoveries not only in geology but also in other science disciplines were seen with suspicion. India was perceived as "a leading nation in fraudulent scientific research."<ref name=":35" /> An example of such prejudice was the discovery of one of the oldest multicellular eukaryotes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/science/red-algae-azmi-vindhya|title=1.6 Billion Year Old Algae Rejuvenate Indian Geologist's Once-Bunked Ideas|last=Kher|first=Suvrat|date=2017-03-19|website=The Wire|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The fossils were discovered from the [[w:Vindhyan_Mountains|Vindhyan Mountains]] in Central India by Rafat Jamal Azmi, of the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology in Dehradun, who reported in the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' in 1998''.''<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As Azmi announced the discovery in ''Science'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Azmi|first=R. J.|date=1998-10-23|title=Fossil Discoveries in India|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=282|issue=5389|pages=627|doi=10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=129925669}}</ref> it was immediately received with scepticism. When renowned palaeontologists including Nicholas Butterfield, [[w:Simon_Conway_Morris|Simon Conway Morris]] and Soren Jensen (all at the [[w:University_of_Cambridge|University of Cambridge]]) examined the samples, they concluded that they were not fossils at all but artefacts.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> At the behest of the Geological Society of India, a team of palaeontologists from the Geological Survey of India, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology and Lucknow University, coordinated by Om Narain Bhargava, conducted an expedition in 1999 to verify the discovery.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=Vindhyan fossil controversy|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/69610|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=55|issue=6|pages=675–680|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They found no evidence of Azmi's claims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bagla|first=Pallava|date=2000-08-25|title=Team Rejects Claim of Early Indian Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|journal=Science|language=en|volume=289|issue=5483|pages=1273|doi=10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17772987}}</ref> In 2000, based on the report of the expeditionary team, the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' issued a concluding statement declaring "that the identification of fossils by R. J. Azmi is far from convincing and that more detailed work is necessary before the authenticity of the find is accepted."<ref name=":12" /> The dispute became a persisting controversy until it was resolved in 2009 when Stefan Bengtson and his team at the [[w:Swedish_Museum_of_Natural_History|Swedish Museum of Natural History]] in Stockholm published the full analysis of the case in the ''[[w:Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Belivanova|first2=Veneta|last3=Rasmussen|first3=Birger|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2009-05-12|title=The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=19|pages=7729–7734|doi=10.1073/pnas.0812460106|issn=1091-6490|pmc=2683128|pmid=19416859|doi-access=free}}</ref>'' Azmi's discovery became accepted as genuine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dalton|first1=Rex|last2=Jayaraman|first2=Killugudi|date=2009-04-22|title=Indian fossil find resolves fraud accusations|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2009.383|journal=Nature|language=en|doi=10.1038/news.2009.383|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In a further vindication published in ''[[w:PLoS_Biology|PLoS Biology]]'' in 2017, Bengston's team established that the fossil was that of an alga, which they named ''[[w:Rafatazmia_chitrakootensis|Rafatazmia chitrakootensis]]'' (Figure 4) after the discoverer, and was estimated to be 1.6 billion years old,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Sallstedt|first2=Therese|last3=Belivanova|first3=Veneta|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2017|title=Three-dimensional preservation of cellular and subcellular structures suggests 1.6 billion-year-old crown-group red algae|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=e2000735|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2000735|issn=1545-7885|pmc=5349422|pmid=28291791|doi-access=free}}</ref> becoming the oldest known alga.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017|title=Oldest algal fossils found|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/543467d|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7646|pages=467|doi=10.1038/543467d|issn=1476-4687|pmid=28332521|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Policy and popular culture === In 1989, the [[w:US_House_of_Representatives|US House of Representatives]] used the case as one of the evidences of scientific frauds in its first hearing on its policy on "Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NeWKHPBrrpIC&dq=himalaya+fraud+Gupta%C2%A0&pg=PA1113|title=Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, First Session, June 28, 1989|last=|date=1990|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=1105–1114|language=en}}</ref> In 1991, a 52-minute documentary of the hoax was presented by [[w:Robyn_Williams|Robyn Williams]] in an [[w:ABC_TV|ABC TV]] programme ''The Professor's New Clothes''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acmi.net.au/works/82277--the-professors-new-clothes/|title=The Professor's new clothes {{!}} Stephen Ramsey {{!}} 1991 {{!}} ACMI collection|website=www.acmi.net.au|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In 2000, a 24-minute podcast documentary was broadcast on 31 March by [[w:BBC|BBC]] in its programme "Science Friction" with the headline "Tampering with the Fossil Record".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03kc791|title=BBC World Service - Science Friction, Tampering with the Fossil Record|date=2000-03-31|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> In 2013, S. K. Shah of the Palaeontological Society of India published a book ''Himalayan Fossil Fraud: A View from the Galleries''.<ref name=":34">{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=O. N.|date=2013-12-01|title=Himalayan fossil fraud: A view from the galleries|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-013-0213-5|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=82|issue=6|pages=722–723|doi=10.1007/s12594-013-0213-5|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> In 2021, the University Grants Commission of India used the affair as a case study in its policy titled ''Academic Integrity and Research Quality''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ugc.gov.in/KeyInitiative?ID=ddmCMsxJZgXH2S/m0uMOKQ==|title=Academic Integrity and Research Quality|last=Deka|first=Ramesh Ch.|last2=Deka|first2=Ajanta|publisher=University Grants Commission|year=2021|location=New Delhi (India)|page=97|chapter=Sooner or Later Ethical Violations Get Exposed}}</ref> ==Additional information== === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== Not applicable. === Funding === None. == Footnote == {{Notelist}} == References == <references responsive="1"></references> npm6b3yr3k9tsnqmjkc894gouqunw0u 2819463 2819462 2026-07-27T04:25:30Z Nadia.and.Nasim 3008160 Neither popular culture nor policy 2819463 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Science | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | first1 = Kholhring | w1 = Himalayan fossil hoax | from_w1 = true | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | keywords = Ammonoid, conodont, fossil, Himalayan geology, plagiarism, scientific misconduct | submitted = 2024-01-05 | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = The Himalayan fossil hoax, or simply the Himalayan hoax, or the case of the peripatetic fossils, was perpetrated by an Indian geologist Vishwa Jit Gupta of Panjab University. Since his doctoral research in the early 1960s and the following two decades, Gupta worked on the geological and fossil studies of the Himalayan region, producing hundreds of research publications that were taken as fundamental to understanding the geology of the Himalayas. The Australian geologist John Talent of Macquarie University, who also worked on the geology of the Himalayas, found that Gupta's reports did not match those geological settings and the fossils were particularly odd, with some of them extraordinarily similar to those from other parts of the world. With Glenn Brock, Talent meticulously scrutinised Gupta's voluminous publications and revealed that Gupta had manipulated, faked, recycled, and plagiarised his data. Early in 1978, Gilbert Klapper and Willi Ziegler had suspected foul play when they noticed that Gupta's conodont fossils were similar to those collected by George Jennings Hinde from Buffalo, New York, a century before. As Arun Deep Ahluwalia recalled, Gupta had faked conodont fossils by planting them in the Himalayan rock samples to impress Kiril Budurov in 1980. Gupta duped Philippe Janvier into describing a fish fossil as a new species in 1982, which Janvier later found was collected from China. Talent also discovered in 1986 that Gupta used Moroccan fossils available in a Paris shop to report the presence of ammonoid fossils in the Himalayas. Brock's investigation showed that Gupta's earliest publications including his doctoral thesis indicated plagiarised fossil pictures directly clipped from the 20th-century monographs of Frederick Richard Cowper Reed. Talent publicly revealed Gupta's anomalous fossils and geological inconsistencies at the International Symposium on the Devonian System held at Calgary, Canada, in 1987. His documented criticism was published in German serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' the next year, but was not widely read. Dubbed the Himalayan peripatetic (misplaced) fossils, the case became global news in 1989 when Talent summarised the ''Courier'' story in ''Nature'', with an associated journalistic investigation by Roger Lewin published in ''Science''. It came to light that many of Gupta's Himalayan fossils were acquired from different parts of the world − some bought and some apparently stolen. Gupta had chosen "phantom localities" to attribute his fossil discoveries without ever visiting them. The University Grants Commission of India withdrew its funding to his research. Although suspended for 11 months, Panjab University continued his employment until his normal retirement in 2002. The case was described as "the biggest paleontological fraud of all time" by Talent and as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century" by the Indian magazine ''Down to Earth''. }} == Background == [[w:Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|Vishwa Jit Gupta]] (1942—2022) worked for his Ph.D. degree under the supervision of Mulk Raj Sahni at [[w:Panjab_University|Panjab University]] in Chandigarh, India. Focussing on the palaeontology and geological features of the Himalayas, he started his main research and field work in 1963. He and Sahni reported the initial findings in five papers in 1964 − a discovery of graptolites in two papers in ''[[w:Nature_(journal)|Nature]]'',''<ref name=":37">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-01-25|title=Graptolites in the Indian Sub-continent|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/201385b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=201|issue=4917|pages=385–386|bibcode=1964Natur.201..385S|doi=10.1038/201385b0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4192515}}</ref><ref name=":38">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-12-01|title=Graptolites from the Kashmir Himalayas, also a Note on the Discovery of Fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/2041081a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=204|issue=4963|pages=1081–1082|bibcode=1964Natur.204.1081S|doi=10.1038/2041081a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4218125}}</ref>'' a fossil assemblage in two papers in ''[[w:Current_Science|Current Science]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Lower Palaeozoic Fossils from the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/13/0402.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=13|pages=402–403|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24061792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Additional fossils from the lower palaeozoic of the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/17/0527.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=17|pages=527|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> and one in the ''[[w:Journal_of_the_Palaeontological_Society_of_India|Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India]].''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M.R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1964|title=First record of fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC0JAAAAIAAJ|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=4|pages=33–34|issn=0552-9360|doi=10.1177/0971102319590106}}</ref> His doctoral thesis was entitled ''Palaeontology, Stratigraphy and Structure of the Palaeozoic Rocks of the Area South-East of Srinagar'' upon which he received his degree in 1966.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Over 25 years, Gupta published over 458 research articles and five books.<ref name=":14" /> His publications were recognised as standard references on the [[w:Himalayan_geology|geology]] and fossil record of the Himalayan region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12216622-800-fossils-scandal-throws-himalayas-into-turmoil/|title=Fossils scandal throws Himalayas into turmoil|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1989-04-29|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As an honour, the Panjab University awarded him a D.Sc. and in 1972 created him a separate chair, Director of the Institute of Paleontology.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Technical incongruities in Gupta's research were first pointed out by Sampige Venkateshaiya Srikantia, Om Narain Bhargava and Hari Mohan Kapoor of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=Om|date=2024-06-01|title=John Alfred Talent (1932 - 2024)|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jour-geosocindia/article/100/6/911/644273/John-Alfred-Talent-1932-2024|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=100|issue=6|pages=911–911|doi=10.17491/jgsi/2024/173925|issn=0016-7622}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=O. N.|date=2024-06|title=John Alfred Talent (18 October 1932 – 27 March 2024)|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/05529360241257711|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=69|issue=1|pages=95–96|doi=10.1177/05529360241257711|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> In 1978, Srikantia's team described the presence of bivalve mollusk fossils (''Eurydesma cordatum'' and ''Deltopecten mitchelli'') from Lahaul Valley, Himachal Pradesh, following a scientific exploration of the Himalayas.<ref name=":31">{{Cite journal|last=S. V.|first=Srikantia|last2=Bhargava|first2=O. N.|last3=Kapoor|first3=H. M.|date=1978-02-01|title=A Note on the Occurrence of Eurydesma and Deltopecten Assemblage from the Kuling Formation (Permian) Baralacha Ban Area, Lahaul Valley, Himachal Himalaya|url=https://www.indianjournaloffinance.co.in/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64128|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=73–78|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They came across the accounts of Gupta on the identification of ''Eurydesma'' at two locations in the Himalayas. In 1970 Gupta had reported finding the fossils in [[w:Lachulung_La|Lachulung La]], identifying the deposits as Permian (Cisuralian, around 298 to 272 million years old) limestone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Mahajan|first2=G.|last3=Kumar|first3=S.|last4=Chadha|first4=D.K.|last5=Bisaria|first5=P.C.|last6=Virdi|first6=N.S.|last7=Kochhar|first7=N.|last8=Kashyap|first8=S.R.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy along the Manali-Leh road|journal=Publication of the Centre of Advanced Study in Geology|volume=7|pages=77−84}}</ref> In 1973, he again described the same specimens from the Malung shale of Lahaul Valley in his book ''Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Palaeozoic_Stratigraphy/1iIzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1|title=Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1973|publisher=Hindustan Publishing Corporation|pages=87−89|language=en}}</ref> Here, Gupta assigned the fossils to a much younger Upper Permian (Lopingian, around 259 to 251 million years old). Srikantia's team noticed not only that Gupta's bivalves could not have existed in such different ages, but also found critical errors. They determined that Lachulung La was of a much younger series, the Triassic-Jurassic (250 to 145 million years old); Malung shale was already known to be of Upper Triassic (208 to 201 million years old). Their report ends with a cautionary statement: "the sequence built up by Gupta in the Sarchu area cannot be used for any stratigraphic work."<ref name=":31" /> [[File:John Alfred Talent.jpg|thumb|John Alfred Talent at age 74. [Nadia Talent, [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1978, American geologist [[w:Gilbert_Klapper|Gilbert Klapper]] from the [[w:University_of_Iowa|University of Iowa]] met [[w:Willi_Ziegler|Willi Ziegler]] at the [[w:University_of_Marburg|University of Marburg]] in Germany to discuss the progress of research on the fossil group of jawless vertebrates, the [[w:Conodonts|conodonts]]. At the time of Klapper's visit, Ziegler had two Australian guests, John W. Pickett from the Geological Survey of New South Wales and his associate [[w:John_Alfred_Talent|John Alfred Talent]] (Figure 1{{Efn|Talent, aged 91, died on 27 March 2024 as this paper was under peer review.<ref name=":46"/>}}) from Macquarie University in Sydney.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Talent by then was an established expert in Devonian geology of Australian and Indian regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veevers|first=J. J.|last2=Jones|first2=J. G.|last3=Talent|first3=J. A.|date=1971-02-05|title=Indo-Australian stratigraphy and the configuration and dispersal of Gondwanaland|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16059257|journal=Nature|volume=229|issue=5284|pages=383–388|doi=10.1038/229383a0|issn=0028-0836|pmid=16059257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1972|title=Provincialism and Australian early Devonian faunas|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00167617208728794|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of Australia|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=80–97|doi=10.1080/00167617208728794|issn=0016-7614}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1981|title=Palaeontology and stratigraphy in India retrospect and prospects|url=https://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64914|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|volume=22|issue=10|pages=453–457|issn=0016-7622}}</ref> As the leader of the research team of the first [[w:International_Geological_Correlation_Programme|International Geological Correlation Programme]] (IGCP-1), a project of [[w:UNESCO|UNESCO]], Talent had explored the Himalayas during 1973−1977.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000064480|title=International Geological Correlation Programme: first session of the Board|date=1973|website=UNESCO|access-date=2024-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/International_Geological_Correlation_Pro.html?id=IC9SAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=International Geological Correlation Programme IGCP: Scientific Achievements 1973-1977|last=|first=|date=1978|publisher=UNESCO|editor-last=Bassett|editor-first=M.G.|location=Paris|pages=1−120|language=en|lccn=81452549}}</ref><ref name=":46">{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Andrew|date=2024|title=John Talent: A full life (1932-2024)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380753862_John_Talent_A_full_life_1932-2024|journal=Pander Society Newsletter|volume=56|pages=10−14}}</ref> Pickett and Talent shared their Himalayan studies and discussed Gupta's research on the conodonts. They had also investigated 20 locations around Nepal,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> where Gupta had claimed many discoveries of conodonts from Triassic, Permian, Carboniferous (around 359 to 299 million years old) and [[w:Devonian|Devonian]] (around 420 to 360 million years old) deposits,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Conodont biostratigraphy of the Middle and Upper Triassic rocks of Kashmir and Ladakh|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=6|pages=314−322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Rafek|first2=M.|date=1976|title=Middle and Upper Triassic conodonts from the Himalayas|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=2|pages=196–214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Carboniferous conodonts from Ladakh|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=1|pages=12−36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Uppal|first2=S.|date=1984|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/13323|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=90|issue=3|pages=303−320|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/13323}}</ref> and to their astonishment, found not a trace of fossils, except one that belonged to an older period, the [[w:Silurian|Silurian]] (around 443 to 420 million years ago).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> In one particular case, they explored the area where Gupta and [[w:William_B._N._Berry|William B. N. Berry]] had reported in 1966 several fossils from Kashmir.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> They found that not only the rocks were wrongly identified, but were so deformed that no fossil could have been present.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> [[File:Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences (1919) (20254717390).jpg|thumb|Conodonts from Eighteen Mile Creek. Numbers 7 and 10 were reported by G. J. Hinde. [Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, [https://flickr.com/commons Flickr Commons]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] When Klapper and Ziegler learned of this story, they checked some of Gupta's papers and instantly noticed in two papers photographs of the same conodont fossil. Gupta's report indicated they were collected from sites several miles apart. They thought this could be a case of accidental duplication of the same photograph.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> The real suspicion arose when they found the resemblance of Gupta's fossils with those collected by [[w:George_Jennings_Hinde|George Jennings Hinde]] from the [[w:Eighteen_Mile_Creek|Eighteen Mile Creek]] near Buffalo in New York (Figure 2),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Connell|first=Marjorie|date=1918-12-13|title=George Jennings Hinde|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.48.1250.588|journal=Science|language=en|volume=48|issue=1250|pages=588–590|doi=10.1126/science.48.1250.588|issn=0036-8075|jstor=1642345|jstor-access=free}}</ref> that had been presented before the [[w:Geological_Society_of_London|Geological Society of London]] a century before, in 1876.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7c43GPOUg0C&dq=George+Hinde+in+1879+fossil+buffalo&pg=PP2|title=The Great Fossil Enigma: The Search for the Conodont Animal|last=Knell|first=Simon J.|date=2012-11-06|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-00604-2|pages=374|language=en}}</ref> Gupta sought out Klapper and Ziegler to collaborate at different times, but they declined due to their concern about the suspicious incidents.<ref name=":02" /> The first methodical and critical analysis of Gupta's research records were done by Prem N. Agarwal and S. N. Singh of Lucknow University. In 1980, Agarwal and Singh reviewed research development in the general palaeontology of the Himalayas in which they also examined Gupta's papers.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Agarwal|first=Prem N.|last2=Singh|first2=S. N.|date=1980-05|title=Recent advances in micropalaeontological investigations of the marme Triassic rocks of India|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971102319800112|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=110–129|doi=10.1177/0971102319800112|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> First, they found the long list of conodonts described by Gupta in 1978<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1981 [1978]|orig-year=|title=Triassic conodonts from the Himalaya and their stratigraphic and palaeobiogeographic implications|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120478735|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=87|issue=1|pages=23−39}}</ref> that bears uncanny resemblance to those in the doctoral thesis of Nand Lal Chhabra submitted to the University of Lucknow in 1977. They noted: "It is really a surprising coincidence, unless either of the authors has drawn upon the data of the other without proper reference or acknowledgement."<ref name=":32" /> Gupta's conodonts and their geological settings turned out to be a major issue.<ref name=":33" /> What Agarwal and Singh revealed next was the utterly messed up fossils with their locations in most of Gupta's papers; the same species found in the same location reported in one paper were absent in another report. The overall information was so chaotic and inconsistent that they concluded: "These anomalies in different papers by the same author/s is not understandable, unless they are serious printing mistakes."<ref name=":32" /> Talent made another startling discovery in 1987 while he was in Paris.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He visited Alain Carion's shop of minerals, fossils and meteorites, the ''Carion Minéraux'', on Île Saint-Louis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog/?_x_tr_sl=fr&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc|title=Carion Minéraux: Minéraux, Fossiles et Météorites|website=www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> He purchased many fossils from there including some extinct mollusks and [[w:Ammonoids|ammonoids]] that were explicitly labelled to have been collected from a fossil site near [[w:Erfoud|Erfoud]], Morocco. The Moroccan fossils, as he soon discerned, were very similar to, indeed identical to Gupta's fossils from the Himalayas. It was then that Talent decided to compile the accumulating record of discordance in Gupta's research.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> With his former student and associate Glenn Anthony Brock, he meticulously reanalysed Gupta's published works, establishing that the artifice was not just one or few incidences but that Gupta was a prolific fraudster, faking, recycling and plagiarising research data in hundreds of publications.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":40" /> [[File:Youngolepis praecursor Fig1.jpg|thumb|''Youngolepis praecursor'', a fish fossil from Yunnan, China, which Gupta claimed also present in the Himalayas. [Cui ''et al''., 2022, [[creativecommons:by/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1980, Gupta met [[w:Philippe_Janvier|Philippe Janvier]] at the [[w:Museum_of_Natural_History,_Paris|Museum of Natural History in Paris]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Janvier |first=Philippe |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Breakdown of trust |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341016a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=16|bibcode=1989Natur.341...16J|doi=10.1038/341016a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and showed him "a magnificent fossil fish skull" which he brought along.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He claimed that the fossil was collected by him from Zanskar, Ladakh, at the foothills of the Himalayas. Recognising the fossil as a new species, Janvier made the identification and with Gupta submitted the discovery in ''Recent Researches in Geology''.<ref name=":5" /> Shortly after, Janvier went to Sweden where he met [[w:Mee-mann_Chang|Mee-mann Chang]] (also Zhang Miman) from the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology who was working on her doctoral research on fish fossils from China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Mee-mann|last2=Xhu|first2=Xiaobo|date=1997|title=Reexamination of the relationship of Middle Devonian osteolepids – fossil characters and their interpretations|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Reexamination-of-the-Relationship-of-Middle-and-Chang/253a412520912ec1953464edbbf4bbd88e545851|journal=Novitates|volume=3189|pages=1–14}}</ref> Janvier immediately noticed that some of Chang's fossils were exactly like the one he and Gupta had recently described. When inquired, Chang explained to him that the particular specimen was a Devonian [[w:Coelacanth|coelacanth]] she named ''[[w:Youngolepis_praecursor|Youngolepis praecursor]]'' (Figure 3) that was found in Yunnan region and North Vietnam, and so common in those regions that the fossils were frequently used as gifts to visitors. Chang had already published the discovery in January 1981.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Mi-Man|last2=Xu|first2=Xiao-Bei|date=1981-01-20|title=A new crossopterygian, Youngolepis praecursor, gen. et sp. nov., from Lower Devonian of E. Yunnan, China|url=https://www.sciengine.com/Math%20A0/doi/10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|journal=Scientia Sinica|language=en-US|volume=24|issue=1|pages=89–99|doi=10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|issn=1000-0002}}</ref> Janvier told Gupta to hold their publication, but eventually got it published in 1982 with a few modifications based on Chang's paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1982|title=An osteolepid fish from the middle Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515982|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=8|pages=66–80}}</ref><ref name=":47">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1990|title=A response to the co-authors|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343307a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=307–308|doi=10.1038/343307a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> With an unsettled mind on the origin of the Himalayan fossil, Janvier reported a note of concern in ''Bulletin of the Indian Geologists Association''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1981|title=Remarks on an osteolepid fish from the Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8320471315|journal=Bulletin Indian Geologists' Association|volume=141|page=81}}</ref> remarking that Chang's and Gupta's specimens were "strikingly similar."<ref name=":5" /> Although Gupta avowed that he had never been to the fossil site in China,<ref name=":47" /> it was known that he had a trip to China just before going to France. Janvier was convinced that Gupta had fooled him: "Now, there is no evidence that Gupta brought the fish fossil with him from China, but I'm 99% sure he did."<ref name=":02" /> == The exposé == === Calgary symposium === [[File:Ophiceras sakuntala Trias inf Himalaya.jpg|thumb|Genuine ammonoid fossil, ''Ophiceras sakuntala'', from the Himalayas. [Ghedo, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]] ]] Gupta's practice of fakery was first publicly exposed at the "International Symposium on the Devonian System" held in Calgary, Canada from 17 to 20 August 1987.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/6935963|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last1=McMillan|first1=N. J.|last2=Embry|first2=A. F.|last3=Glass|first3=D. J.|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=581–588}}</ref> The week before, Talent came across a paper by Gupta and German palaeontologist [[w:Heinrich_Karl_Erben|Heinrich Karl Erben]] (Institut für Paläontologie, Bonn) published in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' in 1983 reporting a series of Devonian ammonoids from Himachal Pradesh (Figure 4 is an example of such an ammonoid).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|bibcode=1983PalZ...57...93G|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> When Talent presented his own research at the symposium,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last=Mawson, R.; Talent, J. A.; Bear, V. C.; Brock, G. A.; Farrell, J. R.; Hyland, K. A.; Pyemont, B. D.; Sloan, T. R.; Sorrentino, L; Stewart, M. I.; Trotter, J. A.; Wilson, G. A.; Simpson A. G.|vauthors=|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=485−527}}</ref> he added a discussion on the Himalayan fossils, including Gupta's ammonoids and those from Morocco displaying them side by side on the screen;<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> they appeared "exactly the same".<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another case of identical fossils presented by Talent was from Gupta's accounts of two conodonts in 1975, allegedly collected from two sites 600 kilometres apart and described in two different papers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Geoforensics/ckaYWK-ziToC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA225&printsec=frontcover|title=Geoforensics|last=Ruffell|first=Alastair|last2=McKinley|first2=Jennifer|date=2008-08-06|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-75884-7|page=225|language=en}}</ref> One scientist pointed to Gupta, who was sitting in the front row, and said: "Well, how do you explain having exactly the same fossils in two localities 600 kilometres apart?" An infuriated Gupta stormed out of the room and re-entered clenching his fist as he tried to punch Talent, but was prevented by other participants.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Linse|first=Pat|last2=Smith|first2=Jim W. W.|last3=Loxton|first3=Daniel|last4=Loxton|first4=Jason|date=2011-09-22|title=Fossil fakes: Part two|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA280092459&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10639330&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon~f1ff51e6&aty=open-web-entry|journal=Skeptic (Altadena, CA)|language=English|volume=17|issue=1|pages=64B–64B}}</ref> He shouted to the organisers, demanding the list of all participants and Talent's manuscript.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The committee of the Calgary symposium informed the Vice Chancellor of Panjab University of the incident as well as associated issues with Gupta's research, but no action appeared to be taken.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> In spite of the public exposition, only fossil experts at the symposium knew of the case, and Gupta continued to publish research papers.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === ''Courier'' publication === The director of [[w:Naturmuseum_Senckenberg|Naturmuseum Senckenberg]] in Frankfurt, Germany, had attended the Calgary symposium and asked Talent to allow publication of his presentation, who agreed.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The account was published in the serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' as a 50-page article "Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies" in 1988. Pickett with Rajendra Kumar Goel and Arvind Kumar Jain of the University of Roorkee (now [[w:IIT_Roorkee|IIT Roorkee]]), India, co-authored the paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Talent|first1=John A.|last2=Goel|first2=Rajendra K.|last3=Jain|first3=Arvind K.|last4=Pickett|first4=John W.|date=1988-11-01|title=Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783510611591/Silurian-and-Devonian-of-India-Nepal-and-Bhutan-Biostratigraphic-and-Palaeobiogeographic-Anomalies|journal=Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg|language=en|volume=106|pages=1–57|issn=0341-4116|access-date=2023-12-29}}</ref> The document exposed over a hundred fossil frauds in Gupta's research involving five books and 458 articles, published with 128 co-authors during 25 years.<ref name=":48">{{Cite journal|last=Molina|first=Eustoquio|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta: El fraude de los fósiles reciclados abre el debate en el seno de la comunidad científica|url=https://www.academia.edu/9281608/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta_El_fraude_de_los_f%C3%B3siles_reciclados_abre_el_debate_en_el_seno_de_la_comunidad_cient%C3%ADfica|journal=La Alternativa Racional|language=Spanish|volume=33|pages=23–25}}</ref> However, the ''Courier'' had a limited circulation and the article was not widely read.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === Publications in ''Nature'' and ''Science'' === The case became a global news when ''Nature'' invited Talent to publish a summary of the ''Courier'' article. In a three-page commentary, Talent provided reasons to suspect that Gupta's fossils were bought, stolen or received as gifts from various parts of the world, and not authentically collected from the Himalayan region,<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> and that Gupta's research was a "quagmire of palaeontological disinformation."<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Published on 20 April 1989 issue, Talent's headline in ''Nature'' runs "The case of the peripatetic fossils",<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref> and the commentary concluded as follows:<blockquote>Rhinos in Rio? Kangaroos in Kashmir? Well, something as remarkable biogeographically is said to have occurred. At first sight it might appear that a whole circus of exotica – mainly invertebrate – was let loose and fossilized seriatim in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sequences of the Himalayas. Earth scientists in general, and palaeontologists in particular, have blissfully assumed that, apart from the [[w:Piltdown_Man|Piltdown Man]], their science was largely free from attempts to pollute the literature. There have been cases of practical jokes, and examples of misappropriation of materials by individuals over-eager to publish. But compared with the cornucopia of items disgorged into the stratigraphy of the Himalayan region over the past 25 years, such instances are mere bagatelles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref></blockquote>It immediately prompted media investigations. The most influential was from ''[[w:Science_(journal)|Science]]'' as its news editor [[w:Roger_Lewin|Roger Lewin]] made journalistic enquiry contacting the scientists involved. Lewin published his report on 21 April 1989, which included the following from Talent:<blockquote>The database for the Silurian and Devonian of the Himalaya has become so extensively marred by error, inconsistency and implausibility as to throw grave doubts on the scientific validity of any conclusions that might be drawn from it. An appropriate way to approach this problem and clarify many of the questions raised would be through an independent fact-finding commission set up to probe most of the legions of paleontologically anomalous and suspect reports.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref></blockquote>The story became widely known from ''Nature'' and ''Science'' articles, more so by a series of four ''Nature'' articles titled "the peripatetic fossils" between 1989 and 1990; a defence from Gupta,<ref name=":24" /> comments by Arun Deep Ahluwalia, S B Bhatia, Udai K Bassi, and Philippe Janvier<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":23"/><ref name=":51"/><ref name=":5"/> and John Bruce Waterhouse,<ref name=":28" /> and last by Talent's summary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1990|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 5|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343405a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=405–406|doi=10.1038/343405a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> It was these reports that brought the case to an international level.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> == The fossils == === Conodonts === The principal fossils of dispute were the conodonts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruban|first=Dmitry A.|date=2022-06-01|title=A review of the Late Triassic conodont conundrum: survival beyond biotic perturbations|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|journal=Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments|language=en|volume=102|issue=2|pages=373–382|bibcode=2022PdPe..102..373R|doi=10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|issn=1867-1608|s2cid=237366862}}</ref> One of the first and most well-understood conodont fossils was from the Amsdell Creek in New York, USA, which were determined as Devonian in age.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Müller|first=Klaus J.|date=1956|title=Taxonomy, Nomenclature, Orientation, and Stratigraphic Evaluation of Conodonts|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1300586|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=30|issue=6|pages=1324–1340|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1300586}}</ref> With the help of English geologists [[w:Frank_H._T._Rhodes|Frank H. T. Rhodes]] and R. L. Austin, Gupta reported a discovery titled "Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir" in ''Nature'' in 1967,<ref name=":1" /> the first conodont report from India,<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Forensic_Geoscience/w35I2xvUQioC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA321&printsec=frontcover|title=An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience|last=Bergslien|first=Elisa|date=2012-03-23|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9833-5|page=321|language=en}}</ref> and continued to discover several conodonts in and around Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Die Stratigraphie der alpin-mediterranen Trias / The Stratigraphy of the Alpine-Mediterranean Triassic|last=Gupta|first=V.|date=1974|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7091-4497-8|editor-last=Zapfe|editor-first=Helmuth|series=Schriftenreihe der Erdwissenschaftlichen Kommissionen|volume=2|location=Vienna|pages=97–99|language=en|chapter=Permo-Triassic Boundary in the Himalaya|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Carboniferous of the World|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Waterhouse|first2=J.B.|last3=Bhargava|first3=O.N.|date=1983|publisher=IGME|isbn=978-84-398-5670-2|editor-last=Días|editor-first=Carlos Martínez|pages=147–151|language=en|chapter=Indian Subcontinent|editor-last2=España|editor-first2=Instituto Geológico y Minero de|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC81wR8LXWoC&dq=Gupta+conodonts+1967&pg=PA147}}</ref> According to Talent, it is "statistically beyond the bounds of possibility<nowiki>'' that Devonian conodonts were present in the Himalayas, and that Gupta'</nowiki>s specimens probably were those of the Amsdell Creek.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Klapper also concurred, saying, "[It] is impossible to be 100% certain that the conodonts Gupta reports on come from New York and not the Himalayas as he claims, but I am as certain as I can be."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Gary D. Webster, Carl B. Rexroad and Talent published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers" in 1993 based on an investigation of 19 of Gupta's collaborators. They found that Gupta recycled his conodont reports in 15 publications.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|last2=Rexroad|first2=Carl B.|last3=Talent|first3=John A.|date=1993-05-01|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022336000036933/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=486–493|doi=10.1017/S0022336000036933|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1306034|s2cid=130317390}}</ref> === Ammonoids === Talent was convinced that Gupta's ammonoid specimens originally came from a fossil site near Erfoud, Morocco. The characteristic features showed their identity. Talent had come across the same Moroccan ammonoids at the fossil shop in Paris and noticed that they exactly matched the images Gupta had used in his publications.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He also discovered that Gupta had claimed the source of the conodonts and ammonoids as from the same rock strata, and such could not have been the case since the two groups of animals lived 15 million years apart.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By May 1989, Gupta emphatically wrote Erben that the fossils were authentically of the Himalayas, to which Erben was inclined to make a statement in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' defending his position, stating: "Whatever the truth in this highly detestable affair may be, my personal responsibility in the paper under discussion has been, and still is, restricted to its taxonomical and morphological parts as well as to the illustrations."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=H. K.|date=1989-12-01|title=Statement concerning a paper on Devonian allegedly Himalayan ammonoids|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02989519|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=335|bibcode=1989PalZ...63..335E|doi=10.1007/BF02989519|s2cid=129369116}}</ref> Webster published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989" in 1991 and asserted that the observation "leaves no doubt that these fraudulent practices were knowingly continued over the past 25 years." He found 28 of Gupta's papers containing dubious information on the fossil discoveries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|date=1991-11-25|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S002233600003331X/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=65|issue=6|pages=1006–1008|doi=10.1017/S002233600003331X|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1305833|s2cid=132465759}}</ref> === Gupta's strategy === Gupta was careful in his research publications and would ask eminent scientists to collaborate. He would provide the fossils with the basic geological details and his collaborators made the fossil identification, so that they became "unsuspecting partners in crime," as Bhargava lamented,<ref name=":34" /> or unwitting "partners in the deception", according to Bangalore Puttaiya Radhakrishna, editor of the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India.''<ref name=":26" /> As in the case of his first major publication in ''Nature'' in 1967, Gupta was able to convince Rhodes from the [[w:University_College_of_Swansea|University College of Swansea]] (later president of [[w:Cornell_University|Cornell University]]) and Austin from the [[w:University_of_Southampton|University of Southampton]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Gary Webster at [[w:Washington_State_University|Washington State University]] had coauthored nine of Gupta's papers and asserted that his identification of the [[w:Crinoid|crinoid]] fossils were genuine, but later conceded that he was "virtually certain" they were obtained from places other than the Himalayas. He declared that Gupta "willfully tried to dupe the scientific community.<nowiki>''</nowiki><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By 1989, Gupta had collaborated with 128 scientists around the world, including Berry, Director of the University of California, Berkeley's Museum of Paleontology,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> Kiril J. Budurov of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Budurov|first1=K. J.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Kachroo|first3=R. K.|date=1984-08-01|title=Some Permian Conodonts from the Zewan Formation, Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65298|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=8|pages=533–536|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Michael E. Brookfield of the University of Guelph in Ontario,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brookfield|first1=M. E.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1988|title=The Devonian of Northern Gondwanaland: A Himalayan Viewpoint and Terrane Analysis|url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg_sp/data/014/014001/579_cspgsp014a0579.htm|journal=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System — Memoir 14|language=en-US|volume=1|pages=579–589}}</ref> Erben,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> Gerhard R. Fuchs of the Geological Survey of Austria,<ref name=":44">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Andrzej Gaździcki of the Polish Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gaździcki|first1=Andrzej|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1981|title=Triassic foraminifers Involutinidae from West Carpathians and Himalayas - its stratigraphic and paleobiogeographic implications|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283854385|journal=Bulletin - Geological Society of India|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101–106}}</ref> Janvier,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janvier|first=Philippe|date=1997|title=In retrospect chosen by Philippe Janvier|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=389|issue=6652|pages=688|doi=10.1038/39519|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref> Makoto Kato of Hokkaido University,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kato|first1=Makoto|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa Jit|date=1989|title=Late Palaeozoic Corals from the Himalayas|url=https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/36757|journal=Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. Series 4, Geology and Mineralogy|volume=22|issue=3|pages=399–424|issn=0018-3474}}</ref> Rhodes,<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Jovan Stöcklin from Zurich,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Stöcklin|first2=J.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy and structure of the Phulchauki-Chandragiri area, Nepal|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=7|pages=263−275}}</ref> Geneviève Termier of the University of Paris,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Termier|first2=Geneviere|date=1983-04-01|title=Middle Devonian Corals from Central Bhutan|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65268|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=212–215|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Susan Turner of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Turner|first2=Susan|date=1973|title=Oldest Indian Fish|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=110|issue=5|pages=483–484|doi=10.1017/S001675680003627X|issn=1469-5081|doi-access=free}}</ref> Waterhouse of the University of Queensland,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waterhouse|first1=J. B.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1979-09-01|title=Early Permian Fossils from Southern Tibet, Like Faunas from Peninsular India and Lesser Himalayas of Garhwal|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64587|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=20|issue=9|pages=461–464|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> and Gary Dean Webster of the Washington State University.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Webster|first2=G.D.|date=1980|title=Palaeozoic crinoids from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120347802|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=83|issue=1|pages=1−18}}</ref> Gupta's most prolific foreign collaborator was Waterhouse who co-authored 19 research papers,<ref name=":48" /> followed by Webster with nine papers.<ref name=":0" /> Gupta's intention in associating with notable scientists was manifest when he defended his works, writing in ''Nature'' that it "is seldom possible to do fieldwork in the Himalayas by oneself" and gave a list of scientists he had teamed up with.<ref name=":24" /> He also stressed repeatedly that he sought experts from various countries to corroborate his findings.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":41" /> In his ''Nature'' commentary, he stated that the graptolites reported in his earliest works''<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":38" />'' were substantiated by Sir [[w:Cyril_James_Stubblefield|Cyril James Stubblefield]], then director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and that the fossil site had been verified by his doctoral supervisor Sahni in October 1964. Sahni's companions and travel records indicated that he did visit Kashmir at the time indicated but only to attend a scientific seminar. As Ashok Sahni, son of Sahni and colleague of Gupta, vouchsafed the alibi: "Sahni neither visited the graptolite localities nor did he accompany the post-seminar field excursion."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sahni|first=Ashoki|date=1989-11|title=Sahni visit denied|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/342338c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=342|issue=6248|pages=338–338|doi=10.1038/342338c0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In another case, Gupta investigated the lower Phuchauki in Nepal with Vinod Singh Chhetri from the Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, in 1974. He published four solo papers between 1975 and 1976 including three on conodont finds. In 1977, he published the geological study in ''Chayanica Geologica'' with Chhetri's name on it but without the latter's knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Chhetri|first2=V.S.|date=1977|title=Geology of the area around Phulchauki, Kathmandu, Nepal|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133−146}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Dangol|first2=Gopal M. S.|last3=Chhetri|first3=Vinod Singh|date=1991-07-01|title=Biostratigraphic reports - Spurious and Dubious - from Nepal|url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JNGS/article/view/32577|journal=Journal of Nepal Geological Society|volume=7|doi=10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32577|issn=2676-1378}}</ref> When Chhetri came to know of the publication, he requested Gupta for the data and fossil specimens so that he could confirm them; he never got a response.<ref name=":43" /> Gupta continued to report other fossils from different locations of Nepal, including a series of mammals from Gidhniya in western Nepal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa J.|date=1984-01-01|title=Plio-pleistocene mammals from Gidhniya village Western Nepal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699584800212|journal=Geobios|volume=17|issue=4|pages=493–499|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(84)80021-2|issn=0016-6995}}</ref> Chhetri affirmed that Gupta never explored Nepal other than Phuchauki (not even the upper area, contrary to Gupta's report<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1975|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Phulchauki, Nepal|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/download/13323/12468/39437&ved|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=5|pages=153−168}}</ref>), and never collected any fossil of interest.<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":43" /> To make the matter even more convoluted, Talent discovered from Ziegler that he had trained Gupta on conodont analysis at Marburg. Ziegler recalled Gupta having conodonts similar to those of Amsdell Creek, and asked why he was interested in the American fossils, the latter phlegmatically answered that they were from Nepal. That was a year before Gupta's Nepal exploration, in 1973.<ref name=":43" /> One modus operandi of Gupta was that he kept the locations of the fossils vague so that it would be difficult for peers to vindicate or refute the reports.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":31" /> When other scientists investigated, they never found the exact location or the fossils in the area from where they were allegedly collected.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta had shrewdly justified that the Indian Government restricted the use of detailed topographic or army maps for political and strategic reasons around the Himalayas,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and the maps were especially restricted for foreigners.<ref name=":41" /> He once said: "As an Indian, it is not possible for me to take such liberties [disclosing Himalayan maps to foreign scientists] and to go against the 'Law of the Land'."<ref name=":50">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1990-06-01|title=Discussion: Comments by V. J. Gupta|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66368|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=649–655|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta was also an unapologetic plagiarist and thief. His 1966 thesis contained images of coral fossils from the 1908<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1908|title=I.—Sedgwick Museum Notes: New Fossils from the Haverford-west District. VIII|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/abs/isedgwick-museum-notes-new-fossils-from-the-haverfordwest-district-viii/C15E6E01673B105A0B25F77ADD333E73|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=5|issue=10|pages=433–436|doi=10.1017/S0016756800122368|issn=1469-5081}}</ref> and 1912<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAWvQAAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ordovician and Silurian Fossils from the Central Himalayas|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1912|publisher=Geological Survey|language=en}}</ref> reports of [[w:Frederick_Richard_Cowper_Reed|Frederick Richard Cowper Reed]], a British geologist who surveyed the Himalayas and Burma (now Myanmar). The same images from Reed were used in two of Gupta's papers published in the ''Panjab University Research Bulletin'', in volumes 20 and 21. Gupta's coral fossils most likely came from the Amsdell Creek specimens maintained at the [[w:Aberystwyth_University|Aberystwyth University]] in Wales,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wyatt|first=Antony R.|date=1990-06-01|title=V. J. Gupta and the Aberystwyth Fossil Collections|url=https://indianjournalofcapitalmarkets.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66328|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=587–592|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> where he had done a research work in 1967.<ref name=":50" /> In 1992, researchers at the Aberystwyth University intimated to ''Nature'' that Gupta's fossils were identical to those missing from their collection.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> One of Brock's observations was that Gupta had used fossil images in several instances from the reports of British geologists in the early 20th century: "And all that Gupta had done was take some scissors and cut out the specimens, put them down on a new plate with a new number on them and claim them as his own – and these were samples from somewhere very different, from parts of Somalia."<ref name=":3" /> In a ''Nature'' commentary, Ahluwalia, Gupta's colleague and co-author in several papers,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=Arun D.|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa J.|date=1988-01-01|title=Tal Formation of Himalaya - a century old stratigraphic riddle nearing solution|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/nos/detail/21/86659/Tal_Formation_of_Himalaya_a_century_old_stratigraphic_riddle_nearing_solution|journal=Newsletters on Stratigraphy|language=en|pages=49–58|doi=10.1127/nos/21/1989/49}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> admitted that Talent's accusations were valid.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/At_The_Fringes_Of_Science/rwHFDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA135&printsec=frontcover|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|location=New York/London|pages=135−136|language=en}}</ref> He disclosed that once during the visit of their Bulgarian friend Budurov (whom Gupta later remarked as the "most callous" collaborator<ref name=":47" />) to the Panjab University in 1980, Gupta apparently planted conodont fossils in the limestone samples. As Budurov was about to examine the tiny fossils, Gupta insisted that he prepare fresh samples to let the fossils settle down in a solution. Ahluwalia recollected that he had not seen the fossils from that particular sample earlier, but as Gupta "prepared" it, numerous conodonts became visible. Ahluwalia did not suspect any misdeed at the time but in hindsight was "rather embarrassed at having initially missed the assemblage, but was happy at the 'discovery'."<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Upper Palaeozoic of Lahul-Spiti |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341013a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=13–15|doi=10.1038/341013a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The three of them published the discovery in two articles in 1982.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> Following Talent's allegations, Ahluwalia later processed the original rock sample and could find no fossil at all. He also cited several instances of fossils collected and reported from sites which Gupta apparently never explored.<ref name=":21"/> Another colleague, Shashi Bhushan Bhatia recalled his suspicion when Gupta told him that the rock samples from [[w:Kurig|Kurig]] were of Devonian, and gave Bhatia [[w:Ostracod|ostracod]] fossils that he claimed were from the same sediments. Bhatia saw two irregularities. One, his own exploration of the same site gave a much younger geological age, [[w:Permo-Carboniferous|Permo-Carboniferous]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and he could not recall a single instance of Gupta visiting Kurig. In another, as Gupta requested, Bhatia took the samples in 1972 to the [[w:British_Museum_of_Natural_History|British Museum of Natural History in London]]. There, Bhatia analysed the specimens and found that they were the same as those from [[w:Haragan_Formation|Haragan Formation]] in Oklahoma.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Early Devonian ostracodes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–15|doi=10.1038/341015a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Yet, in good faith, he, Jain and Gupta reported the discovery of the Himalayan ostracod in 1982.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B|last2=Jain|first2=S. P.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|date=1982|title=Lower Devonian ostracode fauna from Spiti and its palaeobiogeographical significance|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9423200|journal=Miscellaneous publication - Geological survey of India|pages=283–293|issn=0579-4706|via=Pascal and Francis}}</ref> When the controversy broke out in 1989, Bhatia consulted Robert Folke Lundin at [[w:Arizona_State_University|Arizona State University]], who confirmed that the Himalayan ostracods were the same as the American specimens,<ref name=":23"/> which he had described in 1968.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://libcat.colorado.edu/Record/b2860582/Details?sid=21552470|title=Ostracodes of the Haragan formation (Devonian) in Oklahoma|last=Lundin|first=Robert F.|date=1968|publisher=University of Oklahoma|series=Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin|location=|pages=116}}</ref> On the same sediments, another collaborator, Udai K. Bassi of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]], later verified that Kurig does not contain Devonian deposits but only of a much younger [[w:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]] sediment,<ref name=":51">{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=Udai K. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – The Kinnaur region |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015b0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–16|doi=10.1038/341015b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and that the border and village records in which visitors are normally listed did not have any mention of Gupta visiting the site.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In the same vein, Gupta and Erben reported in 1983 the occurrance of Carnian (298 to 272 million years old) conodonts and ammonoids from Khimokul La.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|issn=1236-9874}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1983-03-01|title=Carnian Conodonts from Tidong Valley, Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65193|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=156–158|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Bassi, who had surveyed the area several times, attested that there is no Carnian sediment there and that the check-post register or the villagers had no record of Gupta, Erben or any foreigner.<ref name=":51" /> == Reactions == Talent expressed that Gupta "inundated geological and biogeographical literature of the Himalayas with a blizzard of disinformation so extensive as to render the literature almost useless."<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> Gupta said to ''[[w:The_New_York_Times|The New York Times]]'' that he had invited Talent to Panjab University and the Himalayan sites to verify the research findings following the Calgary incident,<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> but that Talent had declined.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In trying to undermine the accusations, he described the affair as "minor disagreements over taxonomy among experts."<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Indian palaeontology under a cloud|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093010|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=1|pages=13–13|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24093010}}</ref> He defended himself by claiming Talent<nowiki>'s allegations as "'malicious bias and professional jealousy'' based on lies that were "building up a story without any basis.'' He added, ''We've had differences for the past 20 years, and he's trying to cash in on them.'' Talent admitted that he did reject Gupta'</nowiki>s invitation to visit Panjab University as he felt it more appropriate for independent investigations from other scientists to make inspections.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the ''Science'' report, Webster admitted having already had the information on the similarity between the Himalayan fossils and those in America and Europe, especially the crinoids which were found only in the United States. Commenting on Talent's Calgary speech, he conceded: "I am now virtually certain that most of these specimens did come from places other than the Himalayas. I certainly should have been more wary."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Janvier also stated that he had asked Gupta to make site expedition himself where the fossils were collected, to which Gupta replied that it was not possible due to political reasons. In his commentary "Breakdown of trust" in ''Nature'', he decried the lack of awareness on scientific frauds and wrote: "The Gupta case may just be a 'big noise'."<ref name=":5"/> Erben responded to Lewin's report claiming his innocence in ''Science'', while admitting that Talent could be right, he blamed him for "zealous exaggerations" as Talent trusted a Paris shopkeeper rather than him. While avowing that he and Gupta were qualified scientists, he disparaged Talent as "without qualifications". He retorted: "However, while really cogent evidence is, indeed, lacking, the circumstantial evidence assembled by Talent seems to be rather convincing."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=Heinrich K.|date=1989-09-15|title=Carelessness, or Good Faith?|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=245|issue=4923|pages=1165–1166|doi=10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Talent replied, blaming Erben for ignoring or not being aware of a series of fossils Gupta produced and for trying to downplay the fraud allegations. He mentioned that the Morroccon-type ammonoids were available in large supplies not only in Paris, but also in Sydney, Australia, which Erben could have investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-11-10|title=The "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|journal=Science|language=en|volume=246|issue=4931|pages=740–741|doi=10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=239850370}}</ref> Writing in ''Nature'', Gupta made a defensive response in September 1989. He upheld that most of his explorations were done with other researchers and that he was not alone in visiting the allegedly dubious sites. Referring to the Devonian fish which he described with Janvier in 1982, he asserted that he had never met Chang or visited her institute so that the specimen as a gift was an implausibility.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> However, he made a misinterpretation of Lewin's report which simply said that Chang had explained the availability of the fossils in China and North Vietnam.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He made a scathing remark:<blockquote>John Talent has made sweeping pronouncements on Himalayan geology. Yet he is not an authority on the subject. I can only conclude that his attack on me was made for two reasons – to draw attention to himself and to deflect criticism of his own failure to contribute to Himalayan geology.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref></blockquote>A. K. Prasad, then director of Gupta's department at Panjab University, backed up Gupta, saying that Talent's accusation was "a conspiracy to denigrate a top Indian scientist".<ref name=":41">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1989-04-01|title=Gupta affirms authenticity|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338694a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6218|pages=694–694|doi=10.1038/338694a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> On the other hand, Ahluwalia affirmed that the fossils were recycled and assigned made-up localities, commenting that "most of the doubts expressed by Talent are well-founded" and that it was a "great embarrassment" that made him want to retract the published reports which he and Budurov co-authored.<ref name=":21" /> Expressing his dismay on revealing Gupta's manipulation of data and fabricated specimens in a report he co-authored about the discovery of a conodont, ''Neogondollela regale'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=U. K.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Chopra|first3=S.|last4=Budurov|first4=K. J.|last5=Ahluwalia|first5=A. D.|date=1988|title=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|url=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|journal=Indian Geologists' Association Bulletin|volume=212|pages=155−158}}</ref> Bassi considered withdrawal of the paper.<ref name=":51" /> The editor of ''Nature'' found Gupta's commentary unimpressive, noting that "close readings of the accusations and responses leaves the impression that Gupta's defence is flimsy."<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> The only collaborator to stand up for Gupta was Waterhouse. Calling Talent's accusation "A case of exaggeration",<ref name=":28" /> Waterhouse stated that Gupta's specimens were definitely collected from the Himalayas.<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> He asserted that the Himalayan research was reported with accurate locations, as he had verified the fossils and explored the fossil sites himself. He criticised Talent for never examining first-hand the actual fossils, and Ahluwalia for misrepresenting some of the reports. He defended Gupta by saying there could have been a bit of sloppy field and laboratory work<ref name=":46" /> but no fraudulent intention, while admitting that Gupta's geological descriptions (stratigraphy) were "often too coarse and too rushed." Commenting in ''Nature'', he wrote: "I can personally vouch that much of Gupta's materials emphatically came from the Himalayas... The 'case' against Gupta is remarkably rich in bold metaphors and unproven assertions, and somewhat thin in scientific analysis."<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Waterhouse|first=J. B.|date=1990-01-25|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 4|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343305a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=305–307|doi=10.1038/343305a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Panjab University issued a circular in 1990 that "it is interested not in brushing the controversy under the carpet, but arriving at the truth." It sought help from major authorities including the [[w:University_Grants_Commission_(India)|University Grants Commission]], [[w:Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research|Indian Council of Medical Research]], [[w:Indian_National_Science_Academy|Indian National Science Academy]], [[w:Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research|Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[w:Wadia_Institute_of_Himalayan_Geology|Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology]], [[w:Department_of_Science_and_Technology_(India)|Department of Science and Technology]], and [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990|title=Panjab University defends itself in Gupta affair|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24092918|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=5|pages=244–244|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Then in March that year, the university took a controversial decision by instituting a scientific expedition team,<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> to be led by Gupta. The [[w:Geological_Society_of_India|Geological Society of India]] was disappointed by the proposal, as Radhakrishna remarked: "We fail to understand why Gupta should have been asked to lead the expedition. Besides, it is beyond our comprehension as to how allegations of recycling can be proved or disproved in the field."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Inaction on a Himalayan scandal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093708|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=9|pages=441–441|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The Geological Survey of India<ref name=":13" />{{Efn|Jayaraman mistook Geological Survey of India for Geological Society of India.}} and the Society for Scientific Values (led by [[w:Autar_Singh_Paintal|Autar Singh Paintal]]) independently organized a one-week expedition to the Himalayan fossil sites. Gupta refrained from the expedition due to "poor health".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1990-09-27|title=Down from the mountain|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/347318b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=347|issue=6291|pages=318–318|doi=10.1038/347318b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The investigators submitted their reports to Panjab University in December 1990. In February 1991, the university accepted the allegations and Gupta was momentarily suspended from service the next month.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holden|first=Constance|date=1991-03-15|title=Indian geologist suspended|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|journal=Science|language=en|volume=251|issue=4999|pages=1310–1310|doi=10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|issn=0036-8075|jstor=2875514}}</ref> The report of the Society for Scientific Values was kept confidential.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The Indian National Science Academy also conducted an independent investigation but failed to come up with a definitive conclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-02-01|title=Scandal upon scandal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343396a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=396–396|doi=10.1038/343396a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-03-01|title=Gupta takes to the hills|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/344187a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=344|issue=6263|pages=187–187|doi=10.1038/344187a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> === Geological Society of India === The Geological Society of India, which claimed that it normally avoids controversial matters for publications in its ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'', fearing that "the accusations [against Gupta] could be construed as quiescence" was obliged to publish two articles from Talent further damning the research malpractices of Gupta.<ref name=":26"/> In the first paper published in December 1989, Talent's team gave an elaborate account of fossil recycling and mismatching of the fossil sources.<ref name=":39">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Kato|first4=Makato|last5=Morante|first5=Richard|last6=Talent|first6=Ross C.|date=1989-12-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologic Database Polluted by Recycling and Other Anomalies|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66405|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=34|issue=6|pages=575–586|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> In the next article published in June 1990, details of Gupta's plagiarisms were documented.<ref name=":40">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Gaetani|first4=Maurizio|last5=Jell|first5=Peter A.|last6=Mawson|first6=Ruth|last7=Talent|first7=Ross C.|last8=Webster|first8=Gary D.|date=1990-06-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologie Database Polluted: Plagiarism and Other Anomalies|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66325|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=569–585|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> As Ian Anderson reported in ''[[w:New_Scientist|New Scientist]]'', the Geological Society of India made a "controversial move" by issuing an [[w:Expression_of_concern|expression of concern]], stating that "the fossil finds of V J Gupta are not reliable", although they did not formally retract any of Gupta's papers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917551-600-himalayan-scandal-rocks-indian-science/|title=Himalayan scandal rocks Indian science|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1991-02-01|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The society reassessed Gupta's papers and found "several discrepancies lending support to the accusations levelled against V. J. Gupta" in 19 publications.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> The society's scientists visited seven localities in the Himalayas from where Gupta claimed to have collected Devonian fossils, but found no such evidence,<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> declaring "the falsification of facts attempted by Gupta."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> They requested Gupta for access to his specimen collections, research notes and laboratory register for verification, but never received any response.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Gupta's fossils may be Himalayan fakes, says GSI|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093206|journal=Current Science|volume=60|issue=3|pages=138–138|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The report titled "The Himalayan Fossil Controversy" was issued on 1 January 1991, condemning Gupta's works as "fictitious and based on spurious fossils" and "incomplete bordering on disinformation."<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It ran the pronouncements:<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref><blockquote> * The most glaring deficiency noticed in nearly all the papers is the absence of precise locality information. Subsequent field checks by officers of the Geological Survey of India and some of Gupta's own colleagues have failed to reveal not only the fossils, but also rock formations stated to have been present in the area... He [Gupta] has failed to produce the originals of the recycled fossils with their registration number, date of collection, field description as entered in Field Note Books and Laboratory Registers and such other evidences which could confirm the genuineness of his fossil collections. * It is obvious from the volume of evidence that has now been collected that the fossil finds of V. J. Gupta are not reliable, that there are internal inconsistencies, that the data is incomplete bordering on disinformation. * The Society has no other alternative but to publish the evaluation report with the recommendation that ''the incomplete and doubtful fossil records as published in the Journal and listed in the enclosed report be ignored till such time that independent proof is forthcoming of the in situ existence of the fossils'' [emphasis in original]. </blockquote> == Consequences == The Panjab University Vice Chancellor [[w:Ram_Prakash_Bambah|Ram Prakash Bambah]] issued Gupta's suspension order in February 1991.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> As [[w:Triloki_Nath_Kapoor|Triloki Nath Kapoor]] soon replaced him, Gupta was reinstated in January 1992.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maddox|first=John|date=1992-02-01|title=Back from the dead|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355578c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6361|pages=578–578|doi=10.1038/355578c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> That year, the University Grants Commission of India stopped its funding to Gupta,<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":45">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994|title=Fossil inquiry finds Indian geologist guilty of plagiarism|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/369698b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=369|issue=6483|pages=698–698|doi=10.1038/369698b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> and ''Nature'' reported a note of disappointment over Gupta's reinstallation, calling it an "Indian rope trick".<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":49">{{Cite journal|date=1994|title=Another rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371726a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6500|pages=726–726|doi=10.1038/371726a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The resurgent controversy compelled Kapoor for a proper action.<ref name=":45" /> The affair was investigated in an official inquiry led by [[w:Man_Mohan_Singh_Gujral|Man Mohan Singh Gujral]], the retired Chief Justice of the Sikkim High Court.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> The inquiry started in February 1992 and lasted two years with the final report submitted in April 1994. Gupta could not make any evidential rebuttal, resorting to lame pretexts such as claiming that he did not have a good memory of his field research and never kept field notes.<ref name=":45" /> The verdict found Gupta guilty of all charges including data recycling, plagiarism, concocting research locations and conning other scientists.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Panjab University imposed three penalties on Gupta: (1) he was officially reprimanded; (1) he was debarred from administrative positions, his becoming a dean which was due that year was stayed;<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> and (3) his annual increments of salary were ceased.<ref name=":36">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1996-04-01|title=Court allows fossil fraudster to return|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/380570b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=380|issue=6575|pages=570–570|doi=10.1038/380570b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref name=":49" /> In 1993, the UGC had rescinded Gupta's department from the status of the Centre of Advanced Study in Palaeontology and Himalayan Geology.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta's dismissal from the Panjab University was discussed by the Syndicate meeting on 30 June 1994, but no decision was made and the case was deferred to the Senate.<ref name=":14" /> The Senate meeting on 24 September made a majority decision, 50 out of 55, that Gupta was not to be discharged; only five were in favour of a dismissal.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994-09-01|title=Gupta censured — but keeps his job|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371368b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6496|pages=368–368|doi=10.1038/371368b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta was however restricted from teaching palaeontology,<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> and was assigned a course in environmental and ground water geology.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was allowed to continue supervising research students.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Pressured by the academic community and public outcries, the university once again brought back Gupta's expulsion case in 1996. When Gupta knew his case was coming up in a special meeting of the Senate to be held on 17 March, he submitted a letter of resignation for voluntary retirement on 1 March. He requested cancellation of the Senate meeting. However, [[w:Kocheril_Raman_Narayanan|Kocheril Raman Narayanan]], then Vice President of India and Chancellor of the university, pushed on for the Senate meeting to uphold the integrity of the university. Learning of this insistence, Gupta submitted application for reversal of his resignation three days before the meeting and went to the Punjab and Haryana High Court seeking protection from the outcomes of the Senate meeting. The court made a notification to the university not to exercise further retribution on Gupta. Having no other option, the Senate decided to accept the resignation letter upon which Gupta took it to the court as he had already revoked that resignation. Gupta won the court case and continued his academic duties.<ref name=":36" /> Gupta was still defiant of his research and called the whole ordeal a "conspiracy by foreigners."<ref name=":30" /> He wrote seven books on environmental geology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book-author/vishwa%20jit%20gupta/|title=Books authored by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.exoticindiaart.com|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gettextbooks.com/author/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|title=Books by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.gettextbooks.com|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> Receiving a full pension benefit, he retired (some sources saying a premature superannuation<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref>) in 2002.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite journal|last=Patnaik|first=Pratap R.|date=2016-08-01|title=Scientific Misconduct in India: Causes and Perpetuation|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|journal=Science and Engineering Ethics|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=1245–1249|doi=10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|issn=1471-5546}}</ref>{{Efn|Sources, even from Talent, indicate the claimed retirement in 2004 may not be reliable, and obviously not an "early" retirement.<ref name=":3"/><ref name=":52" />}} Dhiraj Mohan Banerjee of the Geological Survey of India condemned the university's ineptness on Gupta' continued service and superannuation saying that it "reflects the utter poverty of the Indian ethics."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=D.M.|date=2013|title=Himalayan Fossil Fraud- A view from the galleries By S.K. Shah|url=http://palaeontologicalsociety.in/vol58_14/11.pdf|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=58|issue=2|page=263}}</ref> Gupta gave death threats to Talent.<ref name=":22" /> Talent sarcastically revealed in an [[w:ABC_News|ABC News]] interview when asked if he was a hero: "Oh, I don't know about a hero. There were no particularly dire consequences, just a few death threats. The people who were hurt most were in India."<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> One day, a Panjab University technical assistant who had been involved in preparing fossil photographs for Gupta announced that he had evidence of the sources of fossil frauds and was planning to reveal them. He was killed in a hit-and-run accident the following night in front of his residence.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Gupta allegedly offered money to people to physically assault the co-authors of the ''Courier'' paper, Goel and Kumar, according to Talent. A few days later, the mother of one of them [not specified] was the victim of a hit-and-run accident, resulting in both legs and arms and several ribs broken.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Impact == Once recognised as "India's most celebrated fossil scientist",<ref name=":52" /> Gupta has been called "the greatest" and "most notorious paleontological fraudster"<ref name=":6" /> and "Houdini of the Himalayas."<ref name=":28" /> His forgery was often compared with the case of Piltdown Man, sometimes remarked as the greatest hoax in science.<ref name=":48" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-piltdown-forgery-by-j.-s.-weiner|title=The Piltdown Forgery, by J. S. Weiner|date=2017-02-06|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> ''Nature'' announced Talent's observations with a statement that it "will cast a longer shadow" than the Piltdown Man because of its elaborate publications involving numerous discoveries through a quarter of a century, fossils and scientists."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=1989-04-20|title=Himalayan hoax|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/338604a0|journal=Nature|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=604–604|doi=10.1038/338604a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The ''[[w:Chicago_Tribune|Chicago Tribune]]'' conveyed the news as "the most serious case of its kind since the Piltdown hoax."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-04-24-8904060814-story.html|title=Geologist denies allegations of 'Himalayan hoax'|date=1989-04-24|website=Chicago Tribune|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' further explained: "Unlike the case of Piltdown man, in which a single skull was passed off as a fossil of a prehistoric human, this one involves a much broader range of reported finds that have become a part of scientific literature."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Talent described the meaning and consequences of Gupta's research as proving the most contradictory distribution of animals. Given the scale of fossils and the research publications, he described it as "[perhaps] the biggest paleontological fraud of all time."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1994, ''[[w:Down_to_Earth_(magazine)|Down to Earth]]'' reported it as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> Tony Mayer of the [[w:Nanyang_Technological_University|Nanyang Technological University]] in Singapore stated that the affair "is possibly one of the most extensive instances of malpractice in the whole scientific record."<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> Gupta never faced criminal or ethical charges from the university or government authorities. There was an alleged cover-up of the saga by the government.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/layers-of-dust-years-after-himalayan-fossil-hoax-216961|title=Layers of dust years after 'Himalayan fossil hoax'|last=Bharti|first=Vishav|date=2016-04-03|work=The Tribune|access-date=2023-12-27}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> None of Gupta's papers are retracted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://evolutionnews.org/2023/06/fossil-friday-the-gupta-scandal/|title=Recalling the Gupta Scandal|last=Bechly|first=Günter|date=2023-06-09|website=Evolution News|language=en-US|access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> [[w:Pushpa_Mittra_Bhargava|Pushpa Mittra Bhargava]], founder-director of Centre for [[w:Cellular_and_Molecular_Biology|Cellular and Molecular Biology]] in Hyderabad, explained the reason for his resignation from India's largest scientific establishments including Indian National Science Academy, [[w:National_Academy_of_Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], [[w:Indian_Academy_of_Sciences|Indian Academy of Sciences]], and Indian Social Sciences Academy, citing Gupta's case: "Charges of fraudulent claims laid by him [Gupta] on the discovery of Himalayan fossils have been proved, but the only punishment he has been awarded is the stoppage of some of his increments. What is worse is that the person who exposed him is now being harassed and victimised instead of being made a hero."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/interviews/indian-science-is-run-by-a-mafia-26728|title=Indian science is run by a mafia|date=1996-09-30|website=Down to Earth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> Gujral's inquiry concluded that none of Gupta's co-authors were responsible for the misconduct. Ahluwalia who had openly supported Talent's allegations and blamed Gupta of misconducts in research with which he was linked, lived with trepidation of being ousted from his profession.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> He and three colleagues were threatened by the Panjab University to be punished for conspiracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995|title=Gupta associates feel the reflected heat|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/377003b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=377|issue=6544|pages=3–3|doi=10.1038/377003b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> He was denied a chance of promotion in 1995<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995-11-01|title=Geologist 'victimized' for role in fraud case|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/378227b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=378|issue=6554|pages=227–227|doi=10.1038/378227b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and was rejected from a position of professor even after two personal interviews in 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/rejection-not-justified-says-pu-reader/articleshow/250973.cms|title=Rejection not justified, says PU reader|date=2003-10-26|work=The Times of India|access-date=2024-08-27|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The Geological Society of India's secretary Srikantia made a press statement criticising the Panjab University's decision in 1994 as "a mild censure which amounts to a blatant disregard of ethical values... [and] chosen to ignore all the scientific and legal opinions... [referring to Ahluwalia's case] no one with conscience will come forward to speak the truth and the scientific community will be anaesthetized."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> ''Nature'' commented on the failure of Panjab University on the case: "Chandigarh's indulgence of Gupta is a kind of rope trick in that it defies the admittedly unwritten laws that usually apply when people are accused of publishing fraudulent data."<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It subsequently reported that the university was "disgracefully lenient" on Gupta.<ref name=":49" /> === Vindhyan fossil controversy === [[File:Rafatazmia chitrakootensis (SRXTM renderings), Statherian (Vindhyan Supergroup) of Central-India.png|thumb|''Rafatazmia chitrakootensis.'' [Bengtson ''et al''., 2017. [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] Gupta's case had lingering effects on Indian palaeontology and the controversy was blamed as the reason "paleontology lost prestige" in India<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> and that it caused "irreparable damage to Indian science."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Wit|first=Maarten J.|date=1994-03-03|title=Censorship in geology?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/368010c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=368|issue=6466|pages=10|doi=10.1038/368010c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Indian discoveries not only in geology but also in other science disciplines were seen with suspicion. India was perceived as "a leading nation in fraudulent scientific research."<ref name=":35" /> An example of such prejudice was the discovery of one of the oldest multicellular eukaryotes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/science/red-algae-azmi-vindhya|title=1.6 Billion Year Old Algae Rejuvenate Indian Geologist's Once-Bunked Ideas|last=Kher|first=Suvrat|date=2017-03-19|website=The Wire|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The fossils were discovered from the [[w:Vindhyan_Mountains|Vindhyan Mountains]] in Central India by Rafat Jamal Azmi, of the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology in Dehradun, who reported in the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' in 1998''.''<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As Azmi announced the discovery in ''Science'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Azmi|first=R. J.|date=1998-10-23|title=Fossil Discoveries in India|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=282|issue=5389|pages=627|doi=10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=129925669}}</ref> it was immediately received with scepticism. When renowned palaeontologists including Nicholas Butterfield, [[w:Simon_Conway_Morris|Simon Conway Morris]] and Soren Jensen (all at the [[w:University_of_Cambridge|University of Cambridge]]) examined the samples, they concluded that they were not fossils at all but artefacts.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> At the behest of the Geological Society of India, a team of palaeontologists from the Geological Survey of India, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology and Lucknow University, coordinated by Om Narain Bhargava, conducted an expedition in 1999 to verify the discovery.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=Vindhyan fossil controversy|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/69610|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=55|issue=6|pages=675–680|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They found no evidence of Azmi's claims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bagla|first=Pallava|date=2000-08-25|title=Team Rejects Claim of Early Indian Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|journal=Science|language=en|volume=289|issue=5483|pages=1273|doi=10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17772987}}</ref> In 2000, based on the report of the expeditionary team, the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' issued a concluding statement declaring "that the identification of fossils by R. J. Azmi is far from convincing and that more detailed work is necessary before the authenticity of the find is accepted."<ref name=":12" /> The dispute became a persisting controversy until it was resolved in 2009 when Stefan Bengtson and his team at the [[w:Swedish_Museum_of_Natural_History|Swedish Museum of Natural History]] in Stockholm published the full analysis of the case in the ''[[w:Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Belivanova|first2=Veneta|last3=Rasmussen|first3=Birger|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2009-05-12|title=The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=19|pages=7729–7734|doi=10.1073/pnas.0812460106|issn=1091-6490|pmc=2683128|pmid=19416859|doi-access=free}}</ref>'' Azmi's discovery became accepted as genuine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dalton|first1=Rex|last2=Jayaraman|first2=Killugudi|date=2009-04-22|title=Indian fossil find resolves fraud accusations|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2009.383|journal=Nature|language=en|doi=10.1038/news.2009.383|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In a further vindication published in ''[[w:PLoS_Biology|PLoS Biology]]'' in 2017, Bengston's team established that the fossil was that of an alga, which they named ''[[w:Rafatazmia_chitrakootensis|Rafatazmia chitrakootensis]]'' (Figure 4) after the discoverer, and was estimated to be 1.6 billion years old,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Sallstedt|first2=Therese|last3=Belivanova|first3=Veneta|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2017|title=Three-dimensional preservation of cellular and subcellular structures suggests 1.6 billion-year-old crown-group red algae|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=e2000735|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2000735|issn=1545-7885|pmc=5349422|pmid=28291791|doi-access=free}}</ref> becoming the oldest known alga.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017|title=Oldest algal fossils found|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/543467d|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7646|pages=467|doi=10.1038/543467d|issn=1476-4687|pmid=28332521|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Policy and popular culture === In 1989, the [[w:US_House_of_Representatives|US House of Representatives]] used the case as one of the evidences of scientific frauds in its first hearing on its policy on "Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NeWKHPBrrpIC&dq=himalaya+fraud+Gupta%C2%A0&pg=PA1113|title=Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, First Session, June 28, 1989|last=|date=1990|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=1105–1114|language=en}}</ref> In 1991, a 52-minute documentary of the hoax was presented by [[w:Robyn_Williams|Robyn Williams]] in an [[w:ABC_TV|ABC TV]] programme ''The Professor's New Clothes''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acmi.net.au/works/82277--the-professors-new-clothes/|title=The Professor's new clothes {{!}} Stephen Ramsey {{!}} 1991 {{!}} ACMI collection|website=www.acmi.net.au|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In 2000, a 24-minute podcast documentary was broadcast on 31 March by [[w:BBC|BBC]] in its programme "Science Friction" with the headline "Tampering with the Fossil Record".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03kc791|title=BBC World Service - Science Friction, Tampering with the Fossil Record|date=2000-03-31|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> In 2021, the University Grants Commission of India used the affair as a case study in its policy titled ''Academic Integrity and Research Quality''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ugc.gov.in/KeyInitiative?ID=ddmCMsxJZgXH2S/m0uMOKQ==|title=Academic Integrity and Research Quality|last=Deka|first=Ramesh Ch.|last2=Deka|first2=Ajanta|publisher=University Grants Commission|year=2021|location=New Delhi (India)|page=97|chapter=Sooner or Later Ethical Violations Get Exposed}}</ref> ==Additional information== === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== Not applicable. === Funding === None. == Footnote == {{Notelist}} == References == <references responsive="1"></references> n0k6vodx4vo5opfinvjb3gp995iiavy 2819467 2819463 2026-07-27T04:43:41Z Nadia.and.Nasim 3008160 typo 2819467 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Science | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | first1 = Kholhring | w1 = Himalayan fossil hoax | from_w1 = true | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | keywords = Ammonoid, conodont, fossil, Himalayan geology, plagiarism, scientific misconduct | submitted = 2024-01-05 | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = The Himalayan fossil hoax, or simply the Himalayan hoax, or the case of the peripatetic fossils, was perpetrated by an Indian geologist Vishwa Jit Gupta of Panjab University. Since his doctoral research in the early 1960s and the following two decades, Gupta worked on the geological and fossil studies of the Himalayan region, producing hundreds of research publications that were taken as fundamental to understanding the geology of the Himalayas. The Australian geologist John Talent of Macquarie University, who also worked on the geology of the Himalayas, found that Gupta's reports did not match those geological settings and the fossils were particularly odd, with some of them extraordinarily similar to those from other parts of the world. With Glenn Brock, Talent meticulously scrutinised Gupta's voluminous publications and revealed that Gupta had manipulated, faked, recycled, and plagiarised his data. Early in 1978, Gilbert Klapper and Willi Ziegler had suspected foul play when they noticed that Gupta's conodont fossils were similar to those collected by George Jennings Hinde from Buffalo, New York, a century before. As Arun Deep Ahluwalia recalled, Gupta had faked conodont fossils by planting them in the Himalayan rock samples to impress Kiril Budurov in 1980. Gupta duped Philippe Janvier into describing a fish fossil as a new species in 1982, which Janvier later found was collected from China. Talent also discovered in 1986 that Gupta used Moroccan fossils available in a Paris shop to report the presence of ammonoid fossils in the Himalayas. Brock's investigation showed that Gupta's earliest publications including his doctoral thesis indicated plagiarised fossil pictures directly clipped from the 20th-century monographs of Frederick Richard Cowper Reed. Talent publicly revealed Gupta's anomalous fossils and geological inconsistencies at the International Symposium on the Devonian System held at Calgary, Canada, in 1987. His documented criticism was published in German serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' the next year, but was not widely read. Dubbed the Himalayan peripatetic (misplaced) fossils, the case became global news in 1989 when Talent summarised the ''Courier'' story in ''Nature'', with an associated journalistic investigation by Roger Lewin published in ''Science''. It came to light that many of Gupta's Himalayan fossils were acquired from different parts of the world − some bought and some apparently stolen. Gupta had chosen "phantom localities" to attribute his fossil discoveries without ever visiting them. The University Grants Commission of India withdrew its funding to his research. Although suspended for 11 months, Panjab University continued his employment until his normal retirement in 2002. The case was described as "the biggest paleontological fraud of all time" by Talent and as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century" by the Indian magazine ''Down to Earth''. }} == Background == [[w:Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|Vishwa Jit Gupta]] (1942—2022) worked for his Ph.D. degree under the supervision of Mulk Raj Sahni at [[w:Panjab_University|Panjab University]] in Chandigarh, India. Focussing on the palaeontology and geological features of the Himalayas, he started his main research and field work in 1963. He and Sahni reported the initial findings in five papers in 1964 − a discovery of graptolites in two papers in ''[[w:Nature_(journal)|Nature]]'',''<ref name=":37">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-01-25|title=Graptolites in the Indian Sub-continent|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/201385b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=201|issue=4917|pages=385–386|bibcode=1964Natur.201..385S|doi=10.1038/201385b0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4192515}}</ref><ref name=":38">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-12-01|title=Graptolites from the Kashmir Himalayas, also a Note on the Discovery of Fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/2041081a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=204|issue=4963|pages=1081–1082|bibcode=1964Natur.204.1081S|doi=10.1038/2041081a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4218125}}</ref>'' a fossil assemblage in two papers in ''[[w:Current_Science|Current Science]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Lower Palaeozoic Fossils from the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/13/0402.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=13|pages=402–403|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24061792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Additional fossils from the lower palaeozoic of the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/17/0527.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=17|pages=527|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> and one in the ''[[w:Journal_of_the_Palaeontological_Society_of_India|Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India]].''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M.R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1964|title=First record of fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC0JAAAAIAAJ|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=4|pages=33–34|issn=0552-9360|doi=10.1177/0971102319590106}}</ref> His doctoral thesis was entitled ''Palaeontology, Stratigraphy and Structure of the Palaeozoic Rocks of the Area South-East of Srinagar'' upon which he received his degree in 1966.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Over 25 years, Gupta published over 458 research articles and five books.<ref name=":14" /> His publications were recognised as standard references on the [[w:Himalayan_geology|geology]] and fossil record of the Himalayan region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12216622-800-fossils-scandal-throws-himalayas-into-turmoil/|title=Fossils scandal throws Himalayas into turmoil|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1989-04-29|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As an honour, the Panjab University awarded him a D.Sc. and in 1972 created him a separate chair, Director of the Institute of Paleontology.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Technical incongruities in Gupta's research were first pointed out by Sampige Venkateshaiya Srikantia, Om Narain Bhargava and Hari Mohan Kapoor of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=Om|date=2024-06-01|title=John Alfred Talent (1932 - 2024)|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jour-geosocindia/article/100/6/911/644273/John-Alfred-Talent-1932-2024|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=100|issue=6|pages=911–911|doi=10.17491/jgsi/2024/173925|issn=0016-7622}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=O. N.|date=2024-06|title=John Alfred Talent (18 October 1932 – 27 March 2024)|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/05529360241257711|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=69|issue=1|pages=95–96|doi=10.1177/05529360241257711|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> In 1978, Srikantia's team described the presence of bivalve mollusk fossils (''Eurydesma cordatum'' and ''Deltopecten mitchelli'') from Lahaul Valley, Himachal Pradesh, following a scientific exploration of the Himalayas.<ref name=":31">{{Cite journal|last=S. V.|first=Srikantia|last2=Bhargava|first2=O. N.|last3=Kapoor|first3=H. M.|date=1978-02-01|title=A Note on the Occurrence of Eurydesma and Deltopecten Assemblage from the Kuling Formation (Permian) Baralacha Ban Area, Lahaul Valley, Himachal Himalaya|url=https://www.indianjournaloffinance.co.in/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64128|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=73–78|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They came across the accounts of Gupta on the identification of ''Eurydesma'' at two locations in the Himalayas. In 1970 Gupta had reported finding the fossils in [[w:Lachulung_La|Lachulung La]], identifying the deposits as Permian (Cisuralian, around 298 to 272 million years old) limestone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Mahajan|first2=G.|last3=Kumar|first3=S.|last4=Chadha|first4=D.K.|last5=Bisaria|first5=P.C.|last6=Virdi|first6=N.S.|last7=Kochhar|first7=N.|last8=Kashyap|first8=S.R.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy along the Manali-Leh road|journal=Publication of the Centre of Advanced Study in Geology|volume=7|pages=77−84}}</ref> In 1973, he again described the same specimens from the Malung shale of Lahaul Valley in his book ''Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Palaeozoic_Stratigraphy/1iIzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1|title=Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1973|publisher=Hindustan Publishing Corporation|pages=87−89|language=en}}</ref> Here, Gupta assigned the fossils to a much younger Upper Permian (Lopingian, around 259 to 251 million years old). Srikantia's team noticed not only that Gupta's bivalves could not have existed in such different ages, but also found critical errors. They determined that Lachulung La was of a much younger series, the Triassic-Jurassic (250 to 145 million years old); Malung shale was already known to be of Upper Triassic (208 to 201 million years old). Their report ends with a cautionary statement: "the sequence built up by Gupta in the Sarchu area cannot be used for any stratigraphic work."<ref name=":31" /> [[File:John Alfred Talent.jpg|thumb|John Alfred Talent at age 74. [Nadia Talent, [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1978, American geologist [[w:Gilbert_Klapper|Gilbert Klapper]] from the [[w:University_of_Iowa|University of Iowa]] met [[w:Willi_Ziegler|Willi Ziegler]] at the [[w:University_of_Marburg|University of Marburg]] in Germany to discuss the progress of research on the fossil group of jawless vertebrates, the [[w:Conodonts|conodonts]]. At the time of Klapper's visit, Ziegler had two Australian guests, John W. Pickett from the Geological Survey of New South Wales and his associate [[w:John_Alfred_Talent|John Alfred Talent]] (Figure 1{{Efn|Talent, aged 91, died on 27 March 2024 as this paper was under peer review.<ref name=":46"/>}}) from Macquarie University in Sydney.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Talent by then was an established expert in Devonian geology of Australian and Indian regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veevers|first=J. J.|last2=Jones|first2=J. G.|last3=Talent|first3=J. A.|date=1971-02-05|title=Indo-Australian stratigraphy and the configuration and dispersal of Gondwanaland|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16059257|journal=Nature|volume=229|issue=5284|pages=383–388|doi=10.1038/229383a0|issn=0028-0836|pmid=16059257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1972|title=Provincialism and Australian early Devonian faunas|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00167617208728794|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of Australia|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=80–97|doi=10.1080/00167617208728794|issn=0016-7614}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1981|title=Palaeontology and stratigraphy in India retrospect and prospects|url=https://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64914|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|volume=22|issue=10|pages=453–457|issn=0016-7622}}</ref> As the leader of the research team of the first [[w:International_Geological_Correlation_Programme|International Geological Correlation Programme]] (IGCP-1), a project of [[w:UNESCO|UNESCO]], Talent had explored the Himalayas during 1973−1977.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000064480|title=International Geological Correlation Programme: first session of the Board|date=1973|website=UNESCO|access-date=2024-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/International_Geological_Correlation_Pro.html?id=IC9SAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=International Geological Correlation Programme IGCP: Scientific Achievements 1973-1977|last=|first=|date=1978|publisher=UNESCO|editor-last=Bassett|editor-first=M.G.|location=Paris|pages=1−120|language=en|lccn=81452549}}</ref><ref name=":46">{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Andrew|date=2024|title=John Talent: A full life (1932-2024)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380753862_John_Talent_A_full_life_1932-2024|journal=Pander Society Newsletter|volume=56|pages=10−14}}</ref> Pickett and Talent shared their Himalayan studies and discussed Gupta's research on the conodonts. They had also investigated 20 locations around Nepal,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> where Gupta had claimed many discoveries of conodonts from Triassic, Permian, Carboniferous (around 359 to 299 million years old) and [[w:Devonian|Devonian]] (around 420 to 360 million years old) deposits,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Conodont biostratigraphy of the Middle and Upper Triassic rocks of Kashmir and Ladakh|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=6|pages=314−322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Rafek|first2=M.|date=1976|title=Middle and Upper Triassic conodonts from the Himalayas|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=2|pages=196–214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Carboniferous conodonts from Ladakh|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=1|pages=12−36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Uppal|first2=S.|date=1984|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/13323|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=90|issue=3|pages=303−320|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/13323}}</ref> and to their astonishment, found not a trace of fossils, except one that belonged to an older period, the [[w:Silurian|Silurian]] (around 443 to 420 million years ago).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> In one particular case, they explored the area where Gupta and [[w:William_B._N._Berry|William B. N. Berry]] had reported in 1966 several fossils from Kashmir.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> They found that not only the rocks were wrongly identified, but were so deformed that no fossil could have been present.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> [[File:Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences (1919) (20254717390).jpg|thumb|Conodonts from Eighteen Mile Creek. Numbers 7 and 10 were reported by G. J. Hinde. [Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, [https://flickr.com/commons Flickr Commons]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] When Klapper and Ziegler learned of this story, they checked some of Gupta's papers and instantly noticed in two papers photographs of the same conodont fossil. Gupta's report indicated they were collected from sites several miles apart. They thought this could be a case of accidental duplication of the same photograph.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> The real suspicion arose when they found the resemblance of Gupta's fossils with those collected by [[w:George_Jennings_Hinde|George Jennings Hinde]] from the [[w:Eighteen_Mile_Creek|Eighteen Mile Creek]] near Buffalo in New York (Figure 2),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Connell|first=Marjorie|date=1918-12-13|title=George Jennings Hinde|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.48.1250.588|journal=Science|language=en|volume=48|issue=1250|pages=588–590|doi=10.1126/science.48.1250.588|issn=0036-8075|jstor=1642345|jstor-access=free}}</ref> that had been presented before the [[w:Geological_Society_of_London|Geological Society of London]] a century before, in 1876.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7c43GPOUg0C&dq=George+Hinde+in+1879+fossil+buffalo&pg=PP2|title=The Great Fossil Enigma: The Search for the Conodont Animal|last=Knell|first=Simon J.|date=2012-11-06|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-00604-2|pages=374|language=en}}</ref> Gupta sought out Klapper and Ziegler to collaborate at different times, but they declined due to their concern about the suspicious incidents.<ref name=":02" /> The first methodical and critical analysis of Gupta's research records were done by Prem N. Agarwal and S. N. Singh of Lucknow University. In 1980, Agarwal and Singh reviewed research development in the general palaeontology of the Himalayas in which they also examined Gupta's papers.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Agarwal|first=Prem N.|last2=Singh|first2=S. N.|date=1980-05|title=Recent advances in micropalaeontological investigations of the marme Triassic rocks of India|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971102319800112|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=110–129|doi=10.1177/0971102319800112|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> First, they found the long list of conodonts described by Gupta in 1978<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1981 [1978]|orig-year=|title=Triassic conodonts from the Himalaya and their stratigraphic and palaeobiogeographic implications|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120478735|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=87|issue=1|pages=23−39}}</ref> that bears uncanny resemblance to those in the doctoral thesis of Nand Lal Chhabra submitted to the University of Lucknow in 1977. They noted: "It is really a surprising coincidence, unless either of the authors has drawn upon the data of the other without proper reference or acknowledgement."<ref name=":32" /> Gupta's conodonts and their geological settings turned out to be a major issue.<ref name=":33" /> What Agarwal and Singh revealed next was the utterly messed up fossils with their locations in most of Gupta's papers; the same species found in the same location reported in one paper were absent in another report. The overall information was so chaotic and inconsistent that they concluded: "These anomalies in different papers by the same author/s is not understandable, unless they are serious printing mistakes."<ref name=":32" /> Talent made another startling discovery in 1987 while he was in Paris.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He visited Alain Carion's shop of minerals, fossils and meteorites, the ''Carion Minéraux'', on Île Saint-Louis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog/?_x_tr_sl=fr&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc|title=Carion Minéraux: Minéraux, Fossiles et Météorites|website=www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> He purchased many fossils from there including some extinct mollusks and [[w:Ammonoids|ammonoids]] that were explicitly labelled to have been collected from a fossil site near [[w:Erfoud|Erfoud]], Morocco. The Moroccan fossils, as he soon discerned, were very similar to, indeed identical to Gupta's fossils from the Himalayas. It was then that Talent decided to compile the accumulating record of discordance in Gupta's research.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> With his former student and associate Glenn Anthony Brock, he meticulously reanalysed Gupta's published works, establishing that the artifice was not just one or few incidences but that Gupta was a prolific fraudster, faking, recycling and plagiarising research data in hundreds of publications.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":40" /> [[File:Youngolepis praecursor Fig1.jpg|thumb|''Youngolepis praecursor'', a fish fossil from Yunnan, China, which Gupta claimed also present in the Himalayas. [Cui ''et al''., 2022, [[creativecommons:by/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1980, Gupta met [[w:Philippe_Janvier|Philippe Janvier]] at the [[w:Museum_of_Natural_History,_Paris|Museum of Natural History in Paris]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Janvier |first=Philippe |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Breakdown of trust |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341016a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=16|bibcode=1989Natur.341...16J|doi=10.1038/341016a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and showed him "a magnificent fossil fish skull" which he brought along.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He claimed that the fossil was collected by him from Zanskar, Ladakh, at the foothills of the Himalayas. Recognising the fossil as a new species, Janvier made the identification and with Gupta submitted the discovery in ''Recent Researches in Geology''.<ref name=":5" /> Shortly after, Janvier went to Sweden where he met [[w:Mee-mann_Chang|Mee-mann Chang]] (also Zhang Miman) from the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology who was working on her doctoral research on fish fossils from China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Mee-mann|last2=Xhu|first2=Xiaobo|date=1997|title=Reexamination of the relationship of Middle Devonian osteolepids – fossil characters and their interpretations|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Reexamination-of-the-Relationship-of-Middle-and-Chang/253a412520912ec1953464edbbf4bbd88e545851|journal=Novitates|volume=3189|pages=1–14}}</ref> Janvier immediately noticed that some of Chang's fossils were exactly like the one he and Gupta had recently described. When inquired, Chang explained to him that the particular specimen was a Devonian [[w:Coelacanth|coelacanth]] she named ''[[w:Youngolepis_praecursor|Youngolepis praecursor]]'' (Figure 3) that was found in Yunnan region and North Vietnam, and so common in those regions that the fossils were frequently used as gifts to visitors. Chang had already published the discovery in January 1981.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Mi-Man|last2=Xu|first2=Xiao-Bei|date=1981-01-20|title=A new crossopterygian, Youngolepis praecursor, gen. et sp. nov., from Lower Devonian of E. Yunnan, China|url=https://www.sciengine.com/Math%20A0/doi/10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|journal=Scientia Sinica|language=en-US|volume=24|issue=1|pages=89–99|doi=10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|issn=1000-0002}}</ref> Janvier told Gupta to hold their publication, but eventually got it published in 1982 with a few modifications based on Chang's paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1982|title=An osteolepid fish from the middle Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515982|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=8|pages=66–80}}</ref><ref name=":47">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1990|title=A response to the co-authors|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343307a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=307–308|doi=10.1038/343307a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> With an unsettled mind on the origin of the Himalayan fossil, Janvier reported a note of concern in ''Bulletin of the Indian Geologists Association''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1981|title=Remarks on an osteolepid fish from the Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8320471315|journal=Bulletin Indian Geologists' Association|volume=141|page=81}}</ref> remarking that Chang's and Gupta's specimens were "strikingly similar."<ref name=":5" /> Although Gupta avowed that he had never been to the fossil site in China,<ref name=":47" /> it was known that he had a trip to China just before going to France. Janvier was convinced that Gupta had fooled him: "Now, there is no evidence that Gupta brought the fish fossil with him from China, but I'm 99% sure he did."<ref name=":02" /> == The exposé == === Calgary symposium === [[File:Ophiceras sakuntala Trias inf Himalaya.jpg|thumb|Genuine ammonoid fossil, ''Ophiceras sakuntala'', from the Himalayas. [Ghedo, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]] ]] Gupta's practice of fakery was first publicly exposed at the "International Symposium on the Devonian System" held in Calgary, Canada from 17 to 20 August 1987.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/6935963|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last1=McMillan|first1=N. J.|last2=Embry|first2=A. F.|last3=Glass|first3=D. J.|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=581–588}}</ref> The week before, Talent came across a paper by Gupta and German palaeontologist [[w:Heinrich_Karl_Erben|Heinrich Karl Erben]] (Institut für Paläontologie, Bonn) published in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' in 1983 reporting a series of Devonian ammonoids from Himachal Pradesh (Figure 4 is an example of such an ammonoid).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|bibcode=1983PalZ...57...93G|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> When Talent presented his own research at the symposium,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last=Mawson, R.; Talent, J. A.; Bear, V. C.; Brock, G. A.; Farrell, J. R.; Hyland, K. A.; Pyemont, B. D.; Sloan, T. R.; Sorrentino, L; Stewart, M. I.; Trotter, J. A.; Wilson, G. A.; Simpson A. G.|vauthors=|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=485−527}}</ref> he added a discussion on the Himalayan fossils, including Gupta's ammonoids and those from Morocco displaying them side by side on the screen;<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> they appeared "exactly the same".<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another case of identical fossils presented by Talent was from Gupta's accounts of two conodonts in 1975, allegedly collected from two sites 600 kilometres apart and described in two different papers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Geoforensics/ckaYWK-ziToC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA225&printsec=frontcover|title=Geoforensics|last=Ruffell|first=Alastair|last2=McKinley|first2=Jennifer|date=2008-08-06|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-75884-7|page=225|language=en}}</ref> One scientist pointed to Gupta, who was sitting in the front row, and said: "Well, how do you explain having exactly the same fossils in two localities 600 kilometres apart?" An infuriated Gupta stormed out of the room and re-entered clenching his fist as he tried to punch Talent, but was prevented by other participants.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Linse|first=Pat|last2=Smith|first2=Jim W. W.|last3=Loxton|first3=Daniel|last4=Loxton|first4=Jason|date=2011-09-22|title=Fossil fakes: Part two|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA280092459&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10639330&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon~f1ff51e6&aty=open-web-entry|journal=Skeptic (Altadena, CA)|language=English|volume=17|issue=1|pages=64B–64B}}</ref> He shouted to the organisers, demanding the list of all participants and Talent's manuscript.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The committee of the Calgary symposium informed the Vice Chancellor of Panjab University of the incident as well as associated issues with Gupta's research, but no action appeared to be taken.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> In spite of the public exposition, only fossil experts at the symposium knew of the case, and Gupta continued to publish research papers.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === ''Courier'' publication === The director of [[w:Naturmuseum_Senckenberg|Naturmuseum Senckenberg]] in Frankfurt, Germany, had attended the Calgary symposium and asked Talent to allow publication of his presentation, who agreed.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The account was published in the serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' as a 50-page article "Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies" in 1988. Pickett with Rajendra Kumar Goel and Arvind Kumar Jain of the University of Roorkee (now [[w:IIT_Roorkee|IIT Roorkee]]), India, co-authored the paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Talent|first1=John A.|last2=Goel|first2=Rajendra K.|last3=Jain|first3=Arvind K.|last4=Pickett|first4=John W.|date=1988-11-01|title=Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783510611591/Silurian-and-Devonian-of-India-Nepal-and-Bhutan-Biostratigraphic-and-Palaeobiogeographic-Anomalies|journal=Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg|language=en|volume=106|pages=1–57|issn=0341-4116|access-date=2023-12-29}}</ref> The document exposed over a hundred fossil frauds in Gupta's research involving five books and 458 articles, published with 128 co-authors during 25 years.<ref name=":48">{{Cite journal|last=Molina|first=Eustoquio|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta: El fraude de los fósiles reciclados abre el debate en el seno de la comunidad científica|url=https://www.academia.edu/9281608/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta_El_fraude_de_los_f%C3%B3siles_reciclados_abre_el_debate_en_el_seno_de_la_comunidad_cient%C3%ADfica|journal=La Alternativa Racional|language=Spanish|volume=33|pages=23–25}}</ref> However, the ''Courier'' had a limited circulation and the article was not widely read.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === Publications in ''Nature'' and ''Science'' === The case became a global news when ''Nature'' invited Talent to publish a summary of the ''Courier'' article. In a three-page commentary, Talent provided reasons to suspect that Gupta's fossils were bought, stolen or received as gifts from various parts of the world, and not authentically collected from the Himalayan region,<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> and that Gupta's research was a "quagmire of palaeontological disinformation."<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Published on 20 April 1989 issue, Talent's headline in ''Nature'' runs "The case of the peripatetic fossils",<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref> and the commentary concluded as follows:<blockquote>Rhinos in Rio? Kangaroos in Kashmir? Well, something as remarkable biogeographically is said to have occurred. At first sight it might appear that a whole circus of exotica – mainly invertebrate – was let loose and fossilized seriatim in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sequences of the Himalayas. Earth scientists in general, and palaeontologists in particular, have blissfully assumed that, apart from the [[w:Piltdown_Man|Piltdown Man]], their science was largely free from attempts to pollute the literature. There have been cases of practical jokes, and examples of misappropriation of materials by individuals over-eager to publish. But compared with the cornucopia of items disgorged into the stratigraphy of the Himalayan region over the past 25 years, such instances are mere bagatelles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref></blockquote>It immediately prompted media investigations. The most influential was from ''[[w:Science_(journal)|Science]]'' as its news editor [[w:Roger_Lewin|Roger Lewin]] made journalistic enquiry contacting the scientists involved. Lewin published his report on 21 April 1989, which included the following from Talent:<blockquote>The database for the Silurian and Devonian of the Himalaya has become so extensively marred by error, inconsistency and implausibility as to throw grave doubts on the scientific validity of any conclusions that might be drawn from it. An appropriate way to approach this problem and clarify many of the questions raised would be through an independent fact-finding commission set up to probe most of the legions of paleontologically anomalous and suspect reports.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref></blockquote>The story became widely known from ''Nature'' and ''Science'' articles, more so by a series of four ''Nature'' articles titled "the peripatetic fossils" between 1989 and 1990; a defence from Gupta,<ref name=":24" /> comments by Arun Deep Ahluwalia, S B Bhatia, Udai K Bassi, and Philippe Janvier<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":23"/><ref name=":51"/><ref name=":5"/> and John Bruce Waterhouse,<ref name=":28" /> and last by Talent's summary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1990|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 5|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343405a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=405–406|doi=10.1038/343405a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> It was these reports that brought the case to an international level.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> == The fossils == === Conodonts === The principal fossils of dispute were the conodonts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruban|first=Dmitry A.|date=2022-06-01|title=A review of the Late Triassic conodont conundrum: survival beyond biotic perturbations|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|journal=Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments|language=en|volume=102|issue=2|pages=373–382|bibcode=2022PdPe..102..373R|doi=10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|issn=1867-1608|s2cid=237366862}}</ref> One of the first and most well-understood conodont fossils was from the Amsdell Creek in New York, USA, which were determined as Devonian in age.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Müller|first=Klaus J.|date=1956|title=Taxonomy, Nomenclature, Orientation, and Stratigraphic Evaluation of Conodonts|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1300586|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=30|issue=6|pages=1324–1340|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1300586}}</ref> With the help of English geologists [[w:Frank_H._T._Rhodes|Frank H. T. Rhodes]] and R. L. Austin, Gupta reported a discovery titled "Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir" in ''Nature'' in 1967,<ref name=":1" /> the first conodont report from India,<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Forensic_Geoscience/w35I2xvUQioC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA321&printsec=frontcover|title=An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience|last=Bergslien|first=Elisa|date=2012-03-23|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9833-5|page=321|language=en}}</ref> and continued to discover several conodonts in and around Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Die Stratigraphie der alpin-mediterranen Trias / The Stratigraphy of the Alpine-Mediterranean Triassic|last=Gupta|first=V.|date=1974|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7091-4497-8|editor-last=Zapfe|editor-first=Helmuth|series=Schriftenreihe der Erdwissenschaftlichen Kommissionen|volume=2|location=Vienna|pages=97–99|language=en|chapter=Permo-Triassic Boundary in the Himalaya|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Carboniferous of the World|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Waterhouse|first2=J.B.|last3=Bhargava|first3=O.N.|date=1983|publisher=IGME|isbn=978-84-398-5670-2|editor-last=Días|editor-first=Carlos Martínez|pages=147–151|language=en|chapter=Indian Subcontinent|editor-last2=España|editor-first2=Instituto Geológico y Minero de|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC81wR8LXWoC&dq=Gupta+conodonts+1967&pg=PA147}}</ref> According to Talent, it is "statistically beyond the bounds of possibility<nowiki>'' that Devonian conodonts were present in the Himalayas, and that Gupta'</nowiki>s specimens probably were those of the Amsdell Creek.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Klapper also concurred, saying, "[It] is impossible to be 100% certain that the conodonts Gupta reports on come from New York and not the Himalayas as he claims, but I am as certain as I can be."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Gary D. Webster, Carl B. Rexroad and Talent published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers" in 1993 based on an investigation of 19 of Gupta's collaborators. They found that Gupta recycled his conodont reports in 15 publications.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|last2=Rexroad|first2=Carl B.|last3=Talent|first3=John A.|date=1993-05-01|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022336000036933/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=486–493|doi=10.1017/S0022336000036933|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1306034|s2cid=130317390}}</ref> === Ammonoids === Talent was convinced that Gupta's ammonoid specimens originally came from a fossil site near Erfoud, Morocco. The characteristic features showed their identity. Talent had come across the same Moroccan ammonoids at the fossil shop in Paris and noticed that they exactly matched the images Gupta had used in his publications.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He also discovered that Gupta had claimed the source of the conodonts and ammonoids as from the same rock strata, and such could not have been the case since the two groups of animals lived 15 million years apart.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By May 1989, Gupta emphatically wrote Erben that the fossils were authentically of the Himalayas, to which Erben was inclined to make a statement in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' defending his position, stating: "Whatever the truth in this highly detestable affair may be, my personal responsibility in the paper under discussion has been, and still is, restricted to its taxonomical and morphological parts as well as to the illustrations."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=H. K.|date=1989-12-01|title=Statement concerning a paper on Devonian allegedly Himalayan ammonoids|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02989519|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=335|bibcode=1989PalZ...63..335E|doi=10.1007/BF02989519|s2cid=129369116}}</ref> Webster published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989" in 1991 and asserted that the observation "leaves no doubt that these fraudulent practices were knowingly continued over the past 25 years." He found 28 of Gupta's papers containing dubious information on the fossil discoveries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|date=1991-11-25|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S002233600003331X/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=65|issue=6|pages=1006–1008|doi=10.1017/S002233600003331X|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1305833|s2cid=132465759}}</ref> === Gupta's strategy === Gupta was careful in his research publications and would ask eminent scientists to collaborate. He would provide the fossils with the basic geological details and his collaborators made the fossil identification, so that they became "unsuspecting partners in crime," as Bhargava lamented,<ref name=":34" /> or unwitting "partners in the deception", according to Bangalore Puttaiya Radhakrishna, editor of the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India.''<ref name=":26" /> As in the case of his first major publication in ''Nature'' in 1967, Gupta was able to convince Rhodes from the [[w:University_College_of_Swansea|University College of Swansea]] (later president of [[w:Cornell_University|Cornell University]]) and Austin from the [[w:University_of_Southampton|University of Southampton]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Gary Webster at [[w:Washington_State_University|Washington State University]] had coauthored nine of Gupta's papers and asserted that his identification of the [[w:Crinoid|crinoid]] fossils were genuine, but later conceded that he was "virtually certain" they were obtained from places other than the Himalayas. He declared that Gupta "willfully tried to dupe the scientific community.<nowiki>''</nowiki><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By 1989, Gupta had collaborated with 128 scientists around the world, including Berry, Director of the University of California, Berkeley's Museum of Paleontology,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> Kiril J. Budurov of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Budurov|first1=K. J.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Kachroo|first3=R. K.|date=1984-08-01|title=Some Permian Conodonts from the Zewan Formation, Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65298|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=8|pages=533–536|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Michael E. Brookfield of the University of Guelph in Ontario,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brookfield|first1=M. E.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1988|title=The Devonian of Northern Gondwanaland: A Himalayan Viewpoint and Terrane Analysis|url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg_sp/data/014/014001/579_cspgsp014a0579.htm|journal=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System — Memoir 14|language=en-US|volume=1|pages=579–589}}</ref> Erben,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> Gerhard R. Fuchs of the Geological Survey of Austria,<ref name=":44">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Andrzej Gaździcki of the Polish Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gaździcki|first1=Andrzej|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1981|title=Triassic foraminifers Involutinidae from West Carpathians and Himalayas - its stratigraphic and paleobiogeographic implications|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283854385|journal=Bulletin - Geological Society of India|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101–106}}</ref> Janvier,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janvier|first=Philippe|date=1997|title=In retrospect chosen by Philippe Janvier|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=389|issue=6652|pages=688|doi=10.1038/39519|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref> Makoto Kato of Hokkaido University,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kato|first1=Makoto|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa Jit|date=1989|title=Late Palaeozoic Corals from the Himalayas|url=https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/36757|journal=Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. Series 4, Geology and Mineralogy|volume=22|issue=3|pages=399–424|issn=0018-3474}}</ref> Rhodes,<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Jovan Stöcklin from Zurich,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Stöcklin|first2=J.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy and structure of the Phulchauki-Chandragiri area, Nepal|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=7|pages=263−275}}</ref> Geneviève Termier of the University of Paris,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Termier|first2=Geneviere|date=1983-04-01|title=Middle Devonian Corals from Central Bhutan|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65268|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=212–215|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Susan Turner of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Turner|first2=Susan|date=1973|title=Oldest Indian Fish|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=110|issue=5|pages=483–484|doi=10.1017/S001675680003627X|issn=1469-5081|doi-access=free}}</ref> Waterhouse of the University of Queensland,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waterhouse|first1=J. B.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1979-09-01|title=Early Permian Fossils from Southern Tibet, Like Faunas from Peninsular India and Lesser Himalayas of Garhwal|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64587|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=20|issue=9|pages=461–464|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> and Gary Dean Webster of the Washington State University.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Webster|first2=G.D.|date=1980|title=Palaeozoic crinoids from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120347802|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=83|issue=1|pages=1−18}}</ref> Gupta's most prolific foreign collaborator was Waterhouse who co-authored 19 research papers,<ref name=":48" /> followed by Webster with nine papers.<ref name=":0" /> Gupta's intention in associating with notable scientists was manifest when he defended his works, writing in ''Nature'' that it "is seldom possible to do fieldwork in the Himalayas by oneself" and gave a list of scientists he had teamed up with.<ref name=":24" /> He also stressed repeatedly that he sought experts from various countries to corroborate his findings.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":41" /> In his ''Nature'' commentary, he stated that the graptolites reported in his earliest works''<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":38" />'' were substantiated by Sir [[w:Cyril_James_Stubblefield|Cyril James Stubblefield]], then director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and that the fossil site had been verified by his doctoral supervisor Sahni in October 1964. Sahni's companions and travel records indicated that he did visit Kashmir at the time indicated but only to attend a scientific seminar. As Ashok Sahni, son of Sahni and colleague of Gupta, vouchsafed the alibi: "Sahni neither visited the graptolite localities nor did he accompany the post-seminar field excursion."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sahni|first=Ashoki|date=1989-11|title=Sahni visit denied|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/342338c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=342|issue=6248|pages=338–338|doi=10.1038/342338c0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In another case, Gupta investigated the lower Phuchauki in Nepal with Vinod Singh Chhetri from the Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, in 1974. He published four solo papers between 1975 and 1976 including three on conodont finds. In 1977, he published the geological study in ''Chayanica Geologica'' with Chhetri's name on it but without the latter's knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Chhetri|first2=V.S.|date=1977|title=Geology of the area around Phulchauki, Kathmandu, Nepal|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133−146}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Dangol|first2=Gopal M. S.|last3=Chhetri|first3=Vinod Singh|date=1991-07-01|title=Biostratigraphic reports - Spurious and Dubious - from Nepal|url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JNGS/article/view/32577|journal=Journal of Nepal Geological Society|volume=7|doi=10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32577|issn=2676-1378}}</ref> When Chhetri came to know of the publication, he requested Gupta for the data and fossil specimens so that he could confirm them; he never got a response.<ref name=":43" /> Gupta continued to report other fossils from different locations of Nepal, including a series of mammals from Gidhniya in western Nepal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa J.|date=1984-01-01|title=Plio-pleistocene mammals from Gidhniya village Western Nepal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699584800212|journal=Geobios|volume=17|issue=4|pages=493–499|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(84)80021-2|issn=0016-6995}}</ref> Chhetri affirmed that Gupta never explored Nepal other than Phuchauki (not even the upper area, contrary to Gupta's report<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1975|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Phulchauki, Nepal|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/download/13323/12468/39437&ved|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=5|pages=153−168}}</ref>), and never collected any fossil of interest.<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":43" /> To make the matter even more convoluted, Talent discovered from Ziegler that he had trained Gupta on conodont analysis at Marburg. Ziegler recalled Gupta having conodonts similar to those of Amsdell Creek, and asked why he was interested in the American fossils, the latter phlegmatically answered that they were from Nepal. That was a year before Gupta's Nepal exploration, in 1973.<ref name=":43" /> One modus operandi of Gupta was that he kept the locations of the fossils vague so that it would be difficult for peers to vindicate or refute the reports.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":31" /> When other scientists investigated, they never found the exact location or the fossils in the area from where they were allegedly collected.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta had shrewdly justified that the Indian Government restricted the use of detailed topographic or army maps for political and strategic reasons around the Himalayas,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and the maps were especially restricted for foreigners.<ref name=":41" /> He once said: "As an Indian, it is not possible for me to take such liberties [disclosing Himalayan maps to foreign scientists] and to go against the 'Law of the Land'."<ref name=":50">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1990-06-01|title=Discussion: Comments by V. J. Gupta|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66368|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=649–655|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta was also an unapologetic plagiarist and thief. His 1966 thesis contained images of coral fossils from the 1908<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1908|title=I.—Sedgwick Museum Notes: New Fossils from the Haverford-west District. VIII|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/abs/isedgwick-museum-notes-new-fossils-from-the-haverfordwest-district-viii/C15E6E01673B105A0B25F77ADD333E73|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=5|issue=10|pages=433–436|doi=10.1017/S0016756800122368|issn=1469-5081}}</ref> and 1912<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAWvQAAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ordovician and Silurian Fossils from the Central Himalayas|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1912|publisher=Geological Survey|language=en}}</ref> reports of [[w:Frederick_Richard_Cowper_Reed|Frederick Richard Cowper Reed]], a British geologist who surveyed the Himalayas and Burma (now Myanmar). The same images from Reed were used in two of Gupta's papers published in the ''Panjab University Research Bulletin'', in volumes 20 and 21. Gupta's coral fossils most likely came from the Amsdell Creek specimens maintained at the [[w:Aberystwyth_University|Aberystwyth University]] in Wales,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wyatt|first=Antony R.|date=1990-06-01|title=V. J. Gupta and the Aberystwyth Fossil Collections|url=https://indianjournalofcapitalmarkets.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66328|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=587–592|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> where he had done a research work in 1967.<ref name=":50" /> In 1992, researchers at the Aberystwyth University intimated to ''Nature'' that Gupta's fossils were identical to those missing from their collection.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> One of Brock's observations was that Gupta had used fossil images in several instances from the reports of British geologists in the early 20th century: "And all that Gupta had done was take some scissors and cut out the specimens, put them down on a new plate with a new number on them and claim them as his own – and these were samples from somewhere very different, from parts of Somalia."<ref name=":3" /> In a ''Nature'' commentary, Ahluwalia, Gupta's colleague and co-author in several papers,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=Arun D.|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa J.|date=1988-01-01|title=Tal Formation of Himalaya - a century old stratigraphic riddle nearing solution|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/nos/detail/21/86659/Tal_Formation_of_Himalaya_a_century_old_stratigraphic_riddle_nearing_solution|journal=Newsletters on Stratigraphy|language=en|pages=49–58|doi=10.1127/nos/21/1989/49}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> admitted that Talent's accusations were valid.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/At_The_Fringes_Of_Science/rwHFDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA135&printsec=frontcover|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|location=New York/London|pages=135−136|language=en}}</ref> He disclosed that once during the visit of their Bulgarian friend Budurov (whom Gupta later remarked as the "most callous" collaborator<ref name=":47" />) to the Panjab University in 1980, Gupta apparently planted conodont fossils in the limestone samples. As Budurov was about to examine the tiny fossils, Gupta insisted that he prepare fresh samples to let the fossils settle down in a solution. Ahluwalia recollected that he had not seen the fossils from that particular sample earlier, but as Gupta "prepared" it, numerous conodonts became visible. Ahluwalia did not suspect any misdeed at the time but in hindsight was "rather embarrassed at having initially missed the assemblage, but was happy at the 'discovery'."<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Upper Palaeozoic of Lahul-Spiti |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341013a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=13–15|doi=10.1038/341013a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The three of them published the discovery in two articles in 1982.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> Following Talent's allegations, Ahluwalia later processed the original rock sample and could find no fossil at all. He also cited several instances of fossils collected and reported from sites which Gupta apparently never explored.<ref name=":21"/> Another colleague, Shashi Bhushan Bhatia recalled his suspicion when Gupta told him that the rock samples from [[w:Kurig|Kurig]] were of Devonian, and gave Bhatia [[w:Ostracod|ostracod]] fossils that he claimed were from the same sediments. Bhatia saw two irregularities. One, his own exploration of the same site gave a much younger geological age, [[w:Permo-Carboniferous|Permo-Carboniferous]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and he could not recall a single instance of Gupta visiting Kurig. In another, as Gupta requested, Bhatia took the samples in 1972 to the [[w:British_Museum_of_Natural_History|British Museum of Natural History in London]]. There, Bhatia analysed the specimens and found that they were the same as those from [[w:Haragan_Formation|Haragan Formation]] in Oklahoma.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Early Devonian ostracodes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–15|doi=10.1038/341015a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Yet, in good faith, he, Jain and Gupta reported the discovery of the Himalayan ostracod in 1982.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B|last2=Jain|first2=S. P.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|date=1982|title=Lower Devonian ostracode fauna from Spiti and its palaeobiogeographical significance|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9423200|journal=Miscellaneous publication - Geological survey of India|pages=283–293|issn=0579-4706|via=Pascal and Francis}}</ref> When the controversy broke out in 1989, Bhatia consulted Robert Folke Lundin at [[w:Arizona_State_University|Arizona State University]], who confirmed that the Himalayan ostracods were the same as the American specimens,<ref name=":23"/> which he had described in 1968.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://libcat.colorado.edu/Record/b2860582/Details?sid=21552470|title=Ostracodes of the Haragan formation (Devonian) in Oklahoma|last=Lundin|first=Robert F.|date=1968|publisher=University of Oklahoma|series=Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin|location=|pages=116}}</ref> On the same sediments, another collaborator, Udai K. Bassi of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]], later verified that Kurig does not contain Devonian deposits but only of a much younger [[w:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]] sediment,<ref name=":51">{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=Udai K. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – The Kinnaur region |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015b0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–16|doi=10.1038/341015b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and that the border and village records in which visitors are normally listed did not have any mention of Gupta visiting the site.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In the same vein, Gupta and Erben reported in 1983 the occurrance of Carnian (298 to 272 million years old) conodonts and ammonoids from Khimokul La.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|issn=1236-9874}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1983-03-01|title=Carnian Conodonts from Tidong Valley, Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65193|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=156–158|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Bassi, who had surveyed the area several times, attested that there is no Carnian sediment there and that the check-post register or the villagers had no record of Gupta, Erben or any foreigner.<ref name=":51" /> == Reactions == Talent expressed that Gupta "inundated geological and biogeographical literature of the Himalayas with a blizzard of disinformation so extensive as to render the literature almost useless."<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> Gupta said to ''[[w:The_New_York_Times|The New York Times]]'' that he had invited Talent to Panjab University and the Himalayan sites to verify the research findings following the Calgary incident,<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> but that Talent had declined.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In trying to undermine the accusations, he described the affair as "minor disagreements over taxonomy among experts."<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Indian palaeontology under a cloud|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093010|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=1|pages=13–13|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24093010}}</ref> He defended himself by claiming Talent<nowiki>'s allegations as "'malicious bias and professional jealousy'' based on lies that were "building up a story without any basis.'' He added, ''We've had differences for the past 20 years, and he's trying to cash in on them.'' Talent admitted that he did reject Gupta'</nowiki>s invitation to visit Panjab University as he felt it more appropriate for independent investigations from other scientists to make inspections.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the ''Science'' report, Webster admitted having already had the information on the similarity between the Himalayan fossils and those in America and Europe, especially the crinoids which were found only in the United States. Commenting on Talent's Calgary speech, he conceded: "I am now virtually certain that most of these specimens did come from places other than the Himalayas. I certainly should have been more wary."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Janvier also stated that he had asked Gupta to make site expedition himself where the fossils were collected, to which Gupta replied that it was not possible due to political reasons. In his commentary "Breakdown of trust" in ''Nature'', he decried the lack of awareness on scientific frauds and wrote: "The Gupta case may just be a 'big noise'."<ref name=":5"/> Erben responded to Lewin's report claiming his innocence in ''Science'', while admitting that Talent could be right, he blamed him for "zealous exaggerations" as Talent trusted a Paris shopkeeper rather than him. While avowing that he and Gupta were qualified scientists, he disparaged Talent as "without qualifications". He retorted: "However, while really cogent evidence is, indeed, lacking, the circumstantial evidence assembled by Talent seems to be rather convincing."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=Heinrich K.|date=1989-09-15|title=Carelessness, or Good Faith?|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=245|issue=4923|pages=1165–1166|doi=10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Talent replied, blaming Erben for ignoring or not being aware of a series of fossils Gupta produced and for trying to downplay the fraud allegations. He mentioned that the Morroccon-type ammonoids were available in large supplies not only in Paris, but also in Sydney, Australia, which Erben could have investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-11-10|title=The "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|journal=Science|language=en|volume=246|issue=4931|pages=740–741|doi=10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=239850370}}</ref> Writing in ''Nature'', Gupta made a defensive response in September 1989. He upheld that most of his explorations were done with other researchers and that he was not alone in visiting the allegedly dubious sites. Referring to the Devonian fish which he described with Janvier in 1982, he asserted that he had never met Chang or visited her institute so that the specimen as a gift was an implausibility.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> However, he made a misinterpretation of Lewin's report which simply said that Chang had explained the availability of the fossils in China and North Vietnam.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He made a scathing remark:<blockquote>John Talent has made sweeping pronouncements on Himalayan geology. Yet he is not an authority on the subject. I can only conclude that his attack on me was made for two reasons – to draw attention to himself and to deflect criticism of his own failure to contribute to Himalayan geology.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref></blockquote>A. K. Prasad, then director of Gupta's department at Panjab University, backed up Gupta, saying that Talent's accusation was "a conspiracy to denigrate a top Indian scientist".<ref name=":41">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1989-04-01|title=Gupta affirms authenticity|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338694a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6218|pages=694–694|doi=10.1038/338694a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> On the other hand, Ahluwalia affirmed that the fossils were recycled and assigned made-up localities, commenting that "most of the doubts expressed by Talent are well-founded" and that it was a "great embarrassment" that made him want to retract the published reports which he and Budurov co-authored.<ref name=":21" /> Expressing his dismay on revealing Gupta's manipulation of data and fabricated specimens in a report he co-authored about the discovery of a conodont, ''Neogondollela regale'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=U. K.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Chopra|first3=S.|last4=Budurov|first4=K. J.|last5=Ahluwalia|first5=A. D.|date=1988|title=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|url=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|journal=Indian Geologists' Association Bulletin|volume=212|pages=155−158}}</ref> Bassi considered withdrawal of the paper.<ref name=":51" /> The editor of ''Nature'' found Gupta's commentary unimpressive, noting that "close readings of the accusations and responses leaves the impression that Gupta's defence is flimsy."<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> The only collaborator to stand up for Gupta was Waterhouse. Calling Talent's accusation "A case of exaggeration",<ref name=":28" /> Waterhouse stated that Gupta's specimens were definitely collected from the Himalayas.<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> He asserted that the Himalayan research was reported with accurate locations, as he had verified the fossils and explored the fossil sites himself. He criticised Talent for never examining first-hand the actual fossils, and Ahluwalia for misrepresenting some of the reports. He defended Gupta by saying there could have been a bit of sloppy field and laboratory work<ref name=":46" /> but no fraudulent intention, while admitting that Gupta's geological descriptions (stratigraphy) were "often too coarse and too rushed." Commenting in ''Nature'', he wrote: "I can personally vouch that much of Gupta's materials emphatically came from the Himalayas... The 'case' against Gupta is remarkably rich in bold metaphors and unproven assertions, and somewhat thin in scientific analysis."<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Waterhouse|first=J. B.|date=1990-01-25|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 4|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343305a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=305–307|doi=10.1038/343305a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Panjab University issued a circular in 1990 that "it is interested not in brushing the controversy under the carpet, but arriving at the truth." It sought help from major authorities including the [[w:University_Grants_Commission_(India)|University Grants Commission]], [[w:Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research|Indian Council of Medical Research]], [[w:Indian_National_Science_Academy|Indian National Science Academy]], [[w:Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research|Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[w:Wadia_Institute_of_Himalayan_Geology|Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology]], [[w:Department_of_Science_and_Technology_(India)|Department of Science and Technology]], and [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990|title=Panjab University defends itself in Gupta affair|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24092918|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=5|pages=244–244|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Then in March that year, the university took a controversial decision by instituting a scientific expedition team,<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> to be led by Gupta. The [[w:Geological_Society_of_India|Geological Society of India]] was disappointed by the proposal, as Radhakrishna remarked: "We fail to understand why Gupta should have been asked to lead the expedition. Besides, it is beyond our comprehension as to how allegations of recycling can be proved or disproved in the field."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Inaction on a Himalayan scandal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093708|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=9|pages=441–441|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The Geological Survey of India<ref name=":13" />{{Efn|Jayaraman mistook Geological Survey of India for Geological Society of India.}} and the Society for Scientific Values (led by [[w:Autar_Singh_Paintal|Autar Singh Paintal]]) independently organized a one-week expedition to the Himalayan fossil sites. Gupta refrained from the expedition due to "poor health".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1990-09-27|title=Down from the mountain|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/347318b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=347|issue=6291|pages=318–318|doi=10.1038/347318b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The investigators submitted their reports to Panjab University in December 1990. In February 1991, the university accepted the allegations and Gupta was momentarily suspended from service the next month.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holden|first=Constance|date=1991-03-15|title=Indian geologist suspended|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|journal=Science|language=en|volume=251|issue=4999|pages=1310–1310|doi=10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|issn=0036-8075|jstor=2875514}}</ref> The report of the Society for Scientific Values was kept confidential.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The Indian National Science Academy also conducted an independent investigation but failed to come up with a definitive conclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-02-01|title=Scandal upon scandal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343396a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=396–396|doi=10.1038/343396a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-03-01|title=Gupta takes to the hills|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/344187a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=344|issue=6263|pages=187–187|doi=10.1038/344187a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> === Geological Society of India === The Geological Society of India, which claimed that it normally avoids controversial matters for publications in its ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'', fearing that "the accusations [against Gupta] could be construed as quiescence" was obliged to publish two articles from Talent further damning the research malpractices of Gupta.<ref name=":26"/> In the first paper published in December 1989, Talent's team gave an elaborate account of fossil recycling and mismatching of the fossil sources.<ref name=":39">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Kato|first4=Makato|last5=Morante|first5=Richard|last6=Talent|first6=Ross C.|date=1989-12-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologic Database Polluted by Recycling and Other Anomalies|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66405|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=34|issue=6|pages=575–586|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> In the next article published in June 1990, details of Gupta's plagiarisms were documented.<ref name=":40">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Gaetani|first4=Maurizio|last5=Jell|first5=Peter A.|last6=Mawson|first6=Ruth|last7=Talent|first7=Ross C.|last8=Webster|first8=Gary D.|date=1990-06-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologie Database Polluted: Plagiarism and Other Anomalies|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66325|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=569–585|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> As Ian Anderson reported in ''[[w:New_Scientist|New Scientist]]'', the Geological Society of India made a "controversial move" by issuing an [[w:Expression_of_concern|expression of concern]], stating that "the fossil finds of V J Gupta are not reliable", although they did not formally retract any of Gupta's papers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917551-600-himalayan-scandal-rocks-indian-science/|title=Himalayan scandal rocks Indian science|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1991-02-01|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The society reassessed Gupta's papers and found "several discrepancies lending support to the accusations levelled against V. J. Gupta" in 19 publications.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> The society's scientists visited seven localities in the Himalayas from where Gupta claimed to have collected Devonian fossils, but found no such evidence,<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> declaring "the falsification of facts attempted by Gupta."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> They requested Gupta for access to his specimen collections, research notes and laboratory register for verification, but never received any response.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Gupta's fossils may be Himalayan fakes, says GSI|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093206|journal=Current Science|volume=60|issue=3|pages=138–138|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The report titled "The Himalayan Fossil Controversy" was issued on 1 January 1991, condemning Gupta's works as "fictitious and based on spurious fossils" and "incomplete bordering on disinformation."<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It ran the pronouncements:<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref><blockquote> * The most glaring deficiency noticed in nearly all the papers is the absence of precise locality information. Subsequent field checks by officers of the Geological Survey of India and some of Gupta's own colleagues have failed to reveal not only the fossils, but also rock formations stated to have been present in the area... He [Gupta] has failed to produce the originals of the recycled fossils with their registration number, date of collection, field description as entered in Field Note Books and Laboratory Registers and such other evidences which could confirm the genuineness of his fossil collections. * It is obvious from the volume of evidence that has now been collected that the fossil finds of V. J. Gupta are not reliable, that there are internal inconsistencies, that the data is incomplete bordering on disinformation. * The Society has no other alternative but to publish the evaluation report with the recommendation that ''the incomplete and doubtful fossil records as published in the Journal and listed in the enclosed report be ignored till such time that independent proof is forthcoming of the in situ existence of the fossils'' [emphasis in original]. </blockquote> == Consequences == The Panjab University Vice Chancellor [[w:Ram_Prakash_Bambah|Ram Prakash Bambah]] issued Gupta's suspension order in February 1991.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> As [[w:Triloki_Nath_Kapoor|Triloki Nath Kapoor]] soon replaced him, Gupta was reinstated in January 1992.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maddox|first=John|date=1992-02-01|title=Back from the dead|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355578c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6361|pages=578–578|doi=10.1038/355578c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> That year, the University Grants Commission of India stopped its funding to Gupta,<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":45">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994|title=Fossil inquiry finds Indian geologist guilty of plagiarism|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/369698b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=369|issue=6483|pages=698–698|doi=10.1038/369698b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> and ''Nature'' reported a note of disappointment over Gupta's reinstallation, calling it an "Indian rope trick".<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":49">{{Cite journal|date=1994|title=Another rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371726a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6500|pages=726–726|doi=10.1038/371726a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The resurgent controversy compelled Kapoor for a proper action.<ref name=":45" /> The affair was investigated in an official inquiry led by [[w:Man_Mohan_Singh_Gujral|Man Mohan Singh Gujral]], the retired Chief Justice of the Sikkim High Court.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> The inquiry started in February 1992 and lasted two years with the final report submitted in April 1994. Gupta could not make any evidential rebuttal, resorting to lame pretexts such as claiming that he did not have a good memory of his field research and never kept field notes.<ref name=":45" /> The verdict found Gupta guilty of all charges including data recycling, plagiarism, concocting research locations and conning other scientists.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Panjab University imposed three penalties on Gupta: (1) he was officially reprimanded; (1) he was debarred from administrative positions, his becoming a dean which was due that year was stayed;<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> and (3) his annual increments of salary were ceased.<ref name=":36">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1996-04-01|title=Court allows fossil fraudster to return|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/380570b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=380|issue=6575|pages=570–570|doi=10.1038/380570b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref name=":49" /> In 1993, the UGC had rescinded Gupta's department from the status of the Centre of Advanced Study in Palaeontology and Himalayan Geology.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta's dismissal from the Panjab University was discussed by the Syndicate meeting on 30 June 1994, but no decision was made and the case was deferred to the Senate.<ref name=":14" /> The Senate meeting on 24 September made a majority decision, 50 out of 55, that Gupta was not to be discharged; only five were in favour of a dismissal.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994-09-01|title=Gupta censured — but keeps his job|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371368b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6496|pages=368–368|doi=10.1038/371368b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta was however restricted from teaching palaeontology,<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> and was assigned a course in environmental and ground water geology.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was allowed to continue supervising research students.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Pressured by the academic community and public outcries, the university once again brought back Gupta's expulsion case in 1996. When Gupta knew his case was coming up in a special meeting of the Senate to be held on 17 March, he submitted a letter of resignation for voluntary retirement on 1 March. He requested cancellation of the Senate meeting. However, [[w:Kocheril_Raman_Narayanan|Kocheril Raman Narayanan]], then Vice President of India and Chancellor of the university, pushed on for the Senate meeting to uphold the integrity of the university. Learning of this insistence, Gupta submitted application for reversal of his resignation three days before the meeting and went to the Punjab and Haryana High Court seeking protection from the outcomes of the Senate meeting. The court made a notification to the university not to exercise further retribution on Gupta. Having no other option, the Senate decided to accept the resignation letter upon which Gupta took it to the court as he had already revoked that resignation. Gupta won the court case and continued his academic duties.<ref name=":36" /> Gupta was still defiant of his research and called the whole ordeal a "conspiracy by foreigners."<ref name=":30" /> He wrote seven books on environmental geology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book-author/vishwa%20jit%20gupta/|title=Books authored by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.exoticindiaart.com|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gettextbooks.com/author/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|title=Books by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.gettextbooks.com|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> Receiving a full pension benefit, he retired (some sources saying a premature superannuation<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref>) in 2002.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite journal|last=Patnaik|first=Pratap R.|date=2016-08-01|title=Scientific Misconduct in India: Causes and Perpetuation|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|journal=Science and Engineering Ethics|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=1245–1249|doi=10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|issn=1471-5546}}</ref>{{Efn|Sources, even from Talent, indicate the claimed retirement in 2004 may not be reliable, and obviously not an "early" retirement.<ref name=":3"/><ref name=":52" />}} Dhiraj Mohan Banerjee of the Geological Survey of India condemned the university's ineptness on Gupta's continued service and superannuation saying that it "reflects the utter poverty of the Indian ethics."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=D.M.|date=2013|title=Himalayan Fossil Fraud- A view from the galleries By S.K. Shah|url=http://palaeontologicalsociety.in/vol58_14/11.pdf|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=58|issue=2|page=263}}</ref> Gupta gave death threats to Talent.<ref name=":22" /> Talent sarcastically revealed in an [[w:ABC_News|ABC News]] interview when asked if he was a hero: "Oh, I don't know about a hero. There were no particularly dire consequences, just a few death threats. The people who were hurt most were in India."<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> One day, a Panjab University technical assistant who had been involved in preparing fossil photographs for Gupta announced that he had evidence of the sources of fossil frauds and was planning to reveal them. He was killed in a hit-and-run accident the following night in front of his residence.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Gupta allegedly offered money to people to physically assault the co-authors of the ''Courier'' paper, Goel and Kumar, according to Talent. A few days later, the mother of one of them [not specified] was the victim of a hit-and-run accident, resulting in both legs and arms and several ribs broken.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Impact == Once recognised as "India's most celebrated fossil scientist",<ref name=":52" /> Gupta has been called "the greatest" and "most notorious paleontological fraudster"<ref name=":6" /> and "Houdini of the Himalayas."<ref name=":28" /> His forgery was often compared with the case of Piltdown Man, sometimes remarked as the greatest hoax in science.<ref name=":48" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-piltdown-forgery-by-j.-s.-weiner|title=The Piltdown Forgery, by J. S. Weiner|date=2017-02-06|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> ''Nature'' announced Talent's observations with a statement that it "will cast a longer shadow" than the Piltdown Man because of its elaborate publications involving numerous discoveries through a quarter of a century, fossils and scientists."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=1989-04-20|title=Himalayan hoax|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/338604a0|journal=Nature|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=604–604|doi=10.1038/338604a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The ''[[w:Chicago_Tribune|Chicago Tribune]]'' conveyed the news as "the most serious case of its kind since the Piltdown hoax."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-04-24-8904060814-story.html|title=Geologist denies allegations of 'Himalayan hoax'|date=1989-04-24|website=Chicago Tribune|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' further explained: "Unlike the case of Piltdown man, in which a single skull was passed off as a fossil of a prehistoric human, this one involves a much broader range of reported finds that have become a part of scientific literature."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Talent described the meaning and consequences of Gupta's research as proving the most contradictory distribution of animals. Given the scale of fossils and the research publications, he described it as "[perhaps] the biggest paleontological fraud of all time."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1994, ''[[w:Down_to_Earth_(magazine)|Down to Earth]]'' reported it as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> Tony Mayer of the [[w:Nanyang_Technological_University|Nanyang Technological University]] in Singapore stated that the affair "is possibly one of the most extensive instances of malpractice in the whole scientific record."<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> Gupta never faced criminal or ethical charges from the university or government authorities. There was an alleged cover-up of the saga by the government.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/layers-of-dust-years-after-himalayan-fossil-hoax-216961|title=Layers of dust years after 'Himalayan fossil hoax'|last=Bharti|first=Vishav|date=2016-04-03|work=The Tribune|access-date=2023-12-27}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> None of Gupta's papers are retracted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://evolutionnews.org/2023/06/fossil-friday-the-gupta-scandal/|title=Recalling the Gupta Scandal|last=Bechly|first=Günter|date=2023-06-09|website=Evolution News|language=en-US|access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> [[w:Pushpa_Mittra_Bhargava|Pushpa Mittra Bhargava]], founder-director of Centre for [[w:Cellular_and_Molecular_Biology|Cellular and Molecular Biology]] in Hyderabad, explained the reason for his resignation from India's largest scientific establishments including Indian National Science Academy, [[w:National_Academy_of_Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], [[w:Indian_Academy_of_Sciences|Indian Academy of Sciences]], and Indian Social Sciences Academy, citing Gupta's case: "Charges of fraudulent claims laid by him [Gupta] on the discovery of Himalayan fossils have been proved, but the only punishment he has been awarded is the stoppage of some of his increments. What is worse is that the person who exposed him is now being harassed and victimised instead of being made a hero."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/interviews/indian-science-is-run-by-a-mafia-26728|title=Indian science is run by a mafia|date=1996-09-30|website=Down to Earth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> Gujral's inquiry concluded that none of Gupta's co-authors were responsible for the misconduct. Ahluwalia who had openly supported Talent's allegations and blamed Gupta of misconducts in research with which he was linked, lived with trepidation of being ousted from his profession.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> He and three colleagues were threatened by the Panjab University to be punished for conspiracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995|title=Gupta associates feel the reflected heat|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/377003b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=377|issue=6544|pages=3–3|doi=10.1038/377003b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> He was denied a chance of promotion in 1995<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995-11-01|title=Geologist 'victimized' for role in fraud case|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/378227b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=378|issue=6554|pages=227–227|doi=10.1038/378227b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and was rejected from a position of professor even after two personal interviews in 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/rejection-not-justified-says-pu-reader/articleshow/250973.cms|title=Rejection not justified, says PU reader|date=2003-10-26|work=The Times of India|access-date=2024-08-27|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The Geological Society of India's secretary Srikantia made a press statement criticising the Panjab University's decision in 1994 as "a mild censure which amounts to a blatant disregard of ethical values... [and] chosen to ignore all the scientific and legal opinions... [referring to Ahluwalia's case] no one with conscience will come forward to speak the truth and the scientific community will be anaesthetized."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> ''Nature'' commented on the failure of Panjab University on the case: "Chandigarh's indulgence of Gupta is a kind of rope trick in that it defies the admittedly unwritten laws that usually apply when people are accused of publishing fraudulent data."<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It subsequently reported that the university was "disgracefully lenient" on Gupta.<ref name=":49" /> === Vindhyan fossil controversy === [[File:Rafatazmia chitrakootensis (SRXTM renderings), Statherian (Vindhyan Supergroup) of Central-India.png|thumb|''Rafatazmia chitrakootensis.'' [Bengtson ''et al''., 2017. [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] Gupta's case had lingering effects on Indian palaeontology and the controversy was blamed as the reason "paleontology lost prestige" in India<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> and that it caused "irreparable damage to Indian science."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Wit|first=Maarten J.|date=1994-03-03|title=Censorship in geology?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/368010c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=368|issue=6466|pages=10|doi=10.1038/368010c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Indian discoveries not only in geology but also in other science disciplines were seen with suspicion. India was perceived as "a leading nation in fraudulent scientific research."<ref name=":35" /> An example of such prejudice was the discovery of one of the oldest multicellular eukaryotes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/science/red-algae-azmi-vindhya|title=1.6 Billion Year Old Algae Rejuvenate Indian Geologist's Once-Bunked Ideas|last=Kher|first=Suvrat|date=2017-03-19|website=The Wire|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The fossils were discovered from the [[w:Vindhyan_Mountains|Vindhyan Mountains]] in Central India by Rafat Jamal Azmi, of the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology in Dehradun, who reported in the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' in 1998''.''<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As Azmi announced the discovery in ''Science'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Azmi|first=R. J.|date=1998-10-23|title=Fossil Discoveries in India|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=282|issue=5389|pages=627|doi=10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=129925669}}</ref> it was immediately received with scepticism. When renowned palaeontologists including Nicholas Butterfield, [[w:Simon_Conway_Morris|Simon Conway Morris]] and Soren Jensen (all at the [[w:University_of_Cambridge|University of Cambridge]]) examined the samples, they concluded that they were not fossils at all but artefacts.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> At the behest of the Geological Society of India, a team of palaeontologists from the Geological Survey of India, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology and Lucknow University, coordinated by Om Narain Bhargava, conducted an expedition in 1999 to verify the discovery.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=Vindhyan fossil controversy|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/69610|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=55|issue=6|pages=675–680|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They found no evidence of Azmi's claims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bagla|first=Pallava|date=2000-08-25|title=Team Rejects Claim of Early Indian Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|journal=Science|language=en|volume=289|issue=5483|pages=1273|doi=10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17772987}}</ref> In 2000, based on the report of the expeditionary team, the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' issued a concluding statement declaring "that the identification of fossils by R. J. Azmi is far from convincing and that more detailed work is necessary before the authenticity of the find is accepted."<ref name=":12" /> The dispute became a persisting controversy until it was resolved in 2009 when Stefan Bengtson and his team at the [[w:Swedish_Museum_of_Natural_History|Swedish Museum of Natural History]] in Stockholm published the full analysis of the case in the ''[[w:Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Belivanova|first2=Veneta|last3=Rasmussen|first3=Birger|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2009-05-12|title=The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=19|pages=7729–7734|doi=10.1073/pnas.0812460106|issn=1091-6490|pmc=2683128|pmid=19416859|doi-access=free}}</ref>'' Azmi's discovery became accepted as genuine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dalton|first1=Rex|last2=Jayaraman|first2=Killugudi|date=2009-04-22|title=Indian fossil find resolves fraud accusations|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2009.383|journal=Nature|language=en|doi=10.1038/news.2009.383|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In a further vindication published in ''[[w:PLoS_Biology|PLoS Biology]]'' in 2017, Bengston's team established that the fossil was that of an alga, which they named ''[[w:Rafatazmia_chitrakootensis|Rafatazmia chitrakootensis]]'' (Figure 4) after the discoverer, and was estimated to be 1.6 billion years old,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Sallstedt|first2=Therese|last3=Belivanova|first3=Veneta|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2017|title=Three-dimensional preservation of cellular and subcellular structures suggests 1.6 billion-year-old crown-group red algae|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=e2000735|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2000735|issn=1545-7885|pmc=5349422|pmid=28291791|doi-access=free}}</ref> becoming the oldest known alga.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017|title=Oldest algal fossils found|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/543467d|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7646|pages=467|doi=10.1038/543467d|issn=1476-4687|pmid=28332521|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Policy and popular culture === In 1989, the [[w:US_House_of_Representatives|US House of Representatives]] used the case as one of the evidences of scientific frauds in its first hearing on its policy on "Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NeWKHPBrrpIC&dq=himalaya+fraud+Gupta%C2%A0&pg=PA1113|title=Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, First Session, June 28, 1989|last=|date=1990|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=1105–1114|language=en}}</ref> In 1991, a 52-minute documentary of the hoax was presented by [[w:Robyn_Williams|Robyn Williams]] in an [[w:ABC_TV|ABC TV]] programme ''The Professor's New Clothes''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acmi.net.au/works/82277--the-professors-new-clothes/|title=The Professor's new clothes {{!}} Stephen Ramsey {{!}} 1991 {{!}} ACMI collection|website=www.acmi.net.au|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In 2000, a 24-minute podcast documentary was broadcast on 31 March by [[w:BBC|BBC]] in its programme "Science Friction" with the headline "Tampering with the Fossil Record".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03kc791|title=BBC World Service - Science Friction, Tampering with the Fossil Record|date=2000-03-31|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> In 2021, the University Grants Commission of India used the affair as a case study in its policy titled ''Academic Integrity and Research Quality''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ugc.gov.in/KeyInitiative?ID=ddmCMsxJZgXH2S/m0uMOKQ==|title=Academic Integrity and Research Quality|last=Deka|first=Ramesh Ch.|last2=Deka|first2=Ajanta|publisher=University Grants Commission|year=2021|location=New Delhi (India)|page=97|chapter=Sooner or Later Ethical Violations Get Exposed}}</ref> ==Additional information== === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== Not applicable. === Funding === None. == Footnote == {{Notelist}} == References == <references responsive="1"></references> l94q34w2eihyt3fl0qmdry7bb2djqzc 2819470 2819467 2026-07-27T04:51:42Z Nadia.and.Nasim 3008160 Removed a too broad and unfair quotation about ethics of India in general. 2819470 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | journal = WikiJournal of Science | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | first1 = Kholhring | w1 = Himalayan fossil hoax | from_w1 = true | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | keywords = Ammonoid, conodont, fossil, Himalayan geology, plagiarism, scientific misconduct | submitted = 2024-01-05 | license = <!-- default is CC-BY --> | abstract = The Himalayan fossil hoax, or simply the Himalayan hoax, or the case of the peripatetic fossils, was perpetrated by an Indian geologist Vishwa Jit Gupta of Panjab University. Since his doctoral research in the early 1960s and the following two decades, Gupta worked on the geological and fossil studies of the Himalayan region, producing hundreds of research publications that were taken as fundamental to understanding the geology of the Himalayas. The Australian geologist John Talent of Macquarie University, who also worked on the geology of the Himalayas, found that Gupta's reports did not match those geological settings and the fossils were particularly odd, with some of them extraordinarily similar to those from other parts of the world. With Glenn Brock, Talent meticulously scrutinised Gupta's voluminous publications and revealed that Gupta had manipulated, faked, recycled, and plagiarised his data. Early in 1978, Gilbert Klapper and Willi Ziegler had suspected foul play when they noticed that Gupta's conodont fossils were similar to those collected by George Jennings Hinde from Buffalo, New York, a century before. As Arun Deep Ahluwalia recalled, Gupta had faked conodont fossils by planting them in the Himalayan rock samples to impress Kiril Budurov in 1980. Gupta duped Philippe Janvier into describing a fish fossil as a new species in 1982, which Janvier later found was collected from China. Talent also discovered in 1986 that Gupta used Moroccan fossils available in a Paris shop to report the presence of ammonoid fossils in the Himalayas. Brock's investigation showed that Gupta's earliest publications including his doctoral thesis indicated plagiarised fossil pictures directly clipped from the 20th-century monographs of Frederick Richard Cowper Reed. Talent publicly revealed Gupta's anomalous fossils and geological inconsistencies at the International Symposium on the Devonian System held at Calgary, Canada, in 1987. His documented criticism was published in German serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' the next year, but was not widely read. Dubbed the Himalayan peripatetic (misplaced) fossils, the case became global news in 1989 when Talent summarised the ''Courier'' story in ''Nature'', with an associated journalistic investigation by Roger Lewin published in ''Science''. It came to light that many of Gupta's Himalayan fossils were acquired from different parts of the world − some bought and some apparently stolen. Gupta had chosen "phantom localities" to attribute his fossil discoveries without ever visiting them. The University Grants Commission of India withdrew its funding to his research. Although suspended for 11 months, Panjab University continued his employment until his normal retirement in 2002. The case was described as "the biggest paleontological fraud of all time" by Talent and as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century" by the Indian magazine ''Down to Earth''. }} == Background == [[w:Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|Vishwa Jit Gupta]] (1942—2022) worked for his Ph.D. degree under the supervision of Mulk Raj Sahni at [[w:Panjab_University|Panjab University]] in Chandigarh, India. Focussing on the palaeontology and geological features of the Himalayas, he started his main research and field work in 1963. He and Sahni reported the initial findings in five papers in 1964 − a discovery of graptolites in two papers in ''[[w:Nature_(journal)|Nature]]'',''<ref name=":37">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-01-25|title=Graptolites in the Indian Sub-continent|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/201385b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=201|issue=4917|pages=385–386|bibcode=1964Natur.201..385S|doi=10.1038/201385b0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4192515}}</ref><ref name=":38">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964-12-01|title=Graptolites from the Kashmir Himalayas, also a Note on the Discovery of Fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/2041081a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=204|issue=4963|pages=1081–1082|bibcode=1964Natur.204.1081S|doi=10.1038/2041081a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4218125}}</ref>'' a fossil assemblage in two papers in ''[[w:Current_Science|Current Science]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Lower Palaeozoic Fossils from the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/13/0402.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=13|pages=402–403|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24061792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M. R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1964|title=Additional fossils from the lower palaeozoic of the Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/33/17/0527.pdf|journal=Current Science|volume=33|issue=17|pages=527|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> and one in the ''[[w:Journal_of_the_Palaeontological_Society_of_India|Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India]].''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahni|first1=M.R.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1964|title=First record of fossils in the Muth Quartzite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC0JAAAAIAAJ|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=4|pages=33–34|issn=0552-9360|doi=10.1177/0971102319590106}}</ref> His doctoral thesis was entitled ''Palaeontology, Stratigraphy and Structure of the Palaeozoic Rocks of the Area South-East of Srinagar'' upon which he received his degree in 1966.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Over 25 years, Gupta published over 458 research articles and five books.<ref name=":14" /> His publications were recognised as standard references on the [[w:Himalayan_geology|geology]] and fossil record of the Himalayan region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12216622-800-fossils-scandal-throws-himalayas-into-turmoil/|title=Fossils scandal throws Himalayas into turmoil|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1989-04-29|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As an honour, the Panjab University awarded him a D.Sc. and in 1972 created him a separate chair, Director of the Institute of Paleontology.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Technical incongruities in Gupta's research were first pointed out by Sampige Venkateshaiya Srikantia, Om Narain Bhargava and Hari Mohan Kapoor of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=Om|date=2024-06-01|title=John Alfred Talent (1932 - 2024)|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jour-geosocindia/article/100/6/911/644273/John-Alfred-Talent-1932-2024|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=100|issue=6|pages=911–911|doi=10.17491/jgsi/2024/173925|issn=0016-7622}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhargava|first=O. N.|date=2024-06|title=John Alfred Talent (18 October 1932 – 27 March 2024)|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/05529360241257711|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=69|issue=1|pages=95–96|doi=10.1177/05529360241257711|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> In 1978, Srikantia's team described the presence of bivalve mollusk fossils (''Eurydesma cordatum'' and ''Deltopecten mitchelli'') from Lahaul Valley, Himachal Pradesh, following a scientific exploration of the Himalayas.<ref name=":31">{{Cite journal|last=S. V.|first=Srikantia|last2=Bhargava|first2=O. N.|last3=Kapoor|first3=H. M.|date=1978-02-01|title=A Note on the Occurrence of Eurydesma and Deltopecten Assemblage from the Kuling Formation (Permian) Baralacha Ban Area, Lahaul Valley, Himachal Himalaya|url=https://www.indianjournaloffinance.co.in/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64128|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=73–78|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They came across the accounts of Gupta on the identification of ''Eurydesma'' at two locations in the Himalayas. In 1970 Gupta had reported finding the fossils in [[w:Lachulung_La|Lachulung La]], identifying the deposits as Permian (Cisuralian, around 298 to 272 million years old) limestone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Mahajan|first2=G.|last3=Kumar|first3=S.|last4=Chadha|first4=D.K.|last5=Bisaria|first5=P.C.|last6=Virdi|first6=N.S.|last7=Kochhar|first7=N.|last8=Kashyap|first8=S.R.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy along the Manali-Leh road|journal=Publication of the Centre of Advanced Study in Geology|volume=7|pages=77−84}}</ref> In 1973, he again described the same specimens from the Malung shale of Lahaul Valley in his book ''Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Palaeozoic_Stratigraphy/1iIzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1|title=Indian Palaeozoic Stratigraphy|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1973|publisher=Hindustan Publishing Corporation|pages=87−89|language=en}}</ref> Here, Gupta assigned the fossils to a much younger Upper Permian (Lopingian, around 259 to 251 million years old). Srikantia's team noticed not only that Gupta's bivalves could not have existed in such different ages, but also found critical errors. They determined that Lachulung La was of a much younger series, the Triassic-Jurassic (250 to 145 million years old); Malung shale was already known to be of Upper Triassic (208 to 201 million years old). Their report ends with a cautionary statement: "the sequence built up by Gupta in the Sarchu area cannot be used for any stratigraphic work."<ref name=":31" /> [[File:John Alfred Talent.jpg|thumb|John Alfred Talent at age 74. [Nadia Talent, [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1978, American geologist [[w:Gilbert_Klapper|Gilbert Klapper]] from the [[w:University_of_Iowa|University of Iowa]] met [[w:Willi_Ziegler|Willi Ziegler]] at the [[w:University_of_Marburg|University of Marburg]] in Germany to discuss the progress of research on the fossil group of jawless vertebrates, the [[w:Conodonts|conodonts]]. At the time of Klapper's visit, Ziegler had two Australian guests, John W. Pickett from the Geological Survey of New South Wales and his associate [[w:John_Alfred_Talent|John Alfred Talent]] (Figure 1{{Efn|Talent, aged 91, died on 27 March 2024 as this paper was under peer review.<ref name=":46"/>}}) from Macquarie University in Sydney.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Talent by then was an established expert in Devonian geology of Australian and Indian regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veevers|first=J. J.|last2=Jones|first2=J. G.|last3=Talent|first3=J. A.|date=1971-02-05|title=Indo-Australian stratigraphy and the configuration and dispersal of Gondwanaland|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16059257|journal=Nature|volume=229|issue=5284|pages=383–388|doi=10.1038/229383a0|issn=0028-0836|pmid=16059257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1972|title=Provincialism and Australian early Devonian faunas|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00167617208728794|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of Australia|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=80–97|doi=10.1080/00167617208728794|issn=0016-7614}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1981|title=Palaeontology and stratigraphy in India retrospect and prospects|url=https://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64914|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|volume=22|issue=10|pages=453–457|issn=0016-7622}}</ref> As the leader of the research team of the first [[w:International_Geological_Correlation_Programme|International Geological Correlation Programme]] (IGCP-1), a project of [[w:UNESCO|UNESCO]], Talent had explored the Himalayas during 1973−1977.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000064480|title=International Geological Correlation Programme: first session of the Board|date=1973|website=UNESCO|access-date=2024-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/International_Geological_Correlation_Pro.html?id=IC9SAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=International Geological Correlation Programme IGCP: Scientific Achievements 1973-1977|last=|first=|date=1978|publisher=UNESCO|editor-last=Bassett|editor-first=M.G.|location=Paris|pages=1−120|language=en|lccn=81452549}}</ref><ref name=":46">{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Andrew|date=2024|title=John Talent: A full life (1932-2024)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380753862_John_Talent_A_full_life_1932-2024|journal=Pander Society Newsletter|volume=56|pages=10−14}}</ref> Pickett and Talent shared their Himalayan studies and discussed Gupta's research on the conodonts. They had also investigated 20 locations around Nepal,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> where Gupta had claimed many discoveries of conodonts from Triassic, Permian, Carboniferous (around 359 to 299 million years old) and [[w:Devonian|Devonian]] (around 420 to 360 million years old) deposits,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Conodont biostratigraphy of the Middle and Upper Triassic rocks of Kashmir and Ladakh|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=6|pages=314−322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Rafek|first2=M.|date=1976|title=Middle and Upper Triassic conodonts from the Himalayas|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=2|pages=196–214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1976|title=Carboniferous conodonts from Ladakh|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=2|issue=1|pages=12−36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Uppal|first2=S.|date=1984|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/13323|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=90|issue=3|pages=303−320|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/13323}}</ref> and to their astonishment, found not a trace of fossils, except one that belonged to an older period, the [[w:Silurian|Silurian]] (around 443 to 420 million years ago).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> In one particular case, they explored the area where Gupta and [[w:William_B._N._Berry|William B. N. Berry]] had reported in 1966 several fossils from Kashmir.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> They found that not only the rocks were wrongly identified, but were so deformed that no fossil could have been present.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> [[File:Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences (1919) (20254717390).jpg|thumb|Conodonts from Eighteen Mile Creek. Numbers 7 and 10 were reported by G. J. Hinde. [Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, [https://flickr.com/commons Flickr Commons]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] When Klapper and Ziegler learned of this story, they checked some of Gupta's papers and instantly noticed in two papers photographs of the same conodont fossil. Gupta's report indicated they were collected from sites several miles apart. They thought this could be a case of accidental duplication of the same photograph.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> The real suspicion arose when they found the resemblance of Gupta's fossils with those collected by [[w:George_Jennings_Hinde|George Jennings Hinde]] from the [[w:Eighteen_Mile_Creek|Eighteen Mile Creek]] near Buffalo in New York (Figure 2),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Connell|first=Marjorie|date=1918-12-13|title=George Jennings Hinde|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.48.1250.588|journal=Science|language=en|volume=48|issue=1250|pages=588–590|doi=10.1126/science.48.1250.588|issn=0036-8075|jstor=1642345|jstor-access=free}}</ref> that had been presented before the [[w:Geological_Society_of_London|Geological Society of London]] a century before, in 1876.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7c43GPOUg0C&dq=George+Hinde+in+1879+fossil+buffalo&pg=PP2|title=The Great Fossil Enigma: The Search for the Conodont Animal|last=Knell|first=Simon J.|date=2012-11-06|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-00604-2|pages=374|language=en}}</ref> Gupta sought out Klapper and Ziegler to collaborate at different times, but they declined due to their concern about the suspicious incidents.<ref name=":02" /> The first methodical and critical analysis of Gupta's research records were done by Prem N. Agarwal and S. N. Singh of Lucknow University. In 1980, Agarwal and Singh reviewed research development in the general palaeontology of the Himalayas in which they also examined Gupta's papers.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Agarwal|first=Prem N.|last2=Singh|first2=S. N.|date=1980-05|title=Recent advances in micropalaeontological investigations of the marme Triassic rocks of India|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971102319800112|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=110–129|doi=10.1177/0971102319800112|issn=0552-9360}}</ref> First, they found the long list of conodonts described by Gupta in 1978<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1981 [1978]|orig-year=|title=Triassic conodonts from the Himalaya and their stratigraphic and palaeobiogeographic implications|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120478735|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=87|issue=1|pages=23−39}}</ref> that bears uncanny resemblance to those in the doctoral thesis of Nand Lal Chhabra submitted to the University of Lucknow in 1977. They noted: "It is really a surprising coincidence, unless either of the authors has drawn upon the data of the other without proper reference or acknowledgement."<ref name=":32" /> Gupta's conodonts and their geological settings turned out to be a major issue.<ref name=":33" /> What Agarwal and Singh revealed next was the utterly messed up fossils with their locations in most of Gupta's papers; the same species found in the same location reported in one paper were absent in another report. The overall information was so chaotic and inconsistent that they concluded: "These anomalies in different papers by the same author/s is not understandable, unless they are serious printing mistakes."<ref name=":32" /> Talent made another startling discovery in 1987 while he was in Paris.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He visited Alain Carion's shop of minerals, fossils and meteorites, the ''Carion Minéraux'', on Île Saint-Louis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog/?_x_tr_sl=fr&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc|title=Carion Minéraux: Minéraux, Fossiles et Météorites|website=www-carionmineraux-com.translate.goog|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> He purchased many fossils from there including some extinct mollusks and [[w:Ammonoids|ammonoids]] that were explicitly labelled to have been collected from a fossil site near [[w:Erfoud|Erfoud]], Morocco. The Moroccan fossils, as he soon discerned, were very similar to, indeed identical to Gupta's fossils from the Himalayas. It was then that Talent decided to compile the accumulating record of discordance in Gupta's research.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> With his former student and associate Glenn Anthony Brock, he meticulously reanalysed Gupta's published works, establishing that the artifice was not just one or few incidences but that Gupta was a prolific fraudster, faking, recycling and plagiarising research data in hundreds of publications.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":40" /> [[File:Youngolepis praecursor Fig1.jpg|thumb|''Youngolepis praecursor'', a fish fossil from Yunnan, China, which Gupta claimed also present in the Himalayas. [Cui ''et al''., 2022, [[creativecommons:by/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] In 1980, Gupta met [[w:Philippe_Janvier|Philippe Janvier]] at the [[w:Museum_of_Natural_History,_Paris|Museum of Natural History in Paris]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Janvier |first=Philippe |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Breakdown of trust |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341016a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=16|bibcode=1989Natur.341...16J|doi=10.1038/341016a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and showed him "a magnificent fossil fish skull" which he brought along.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He claimed that the fossil was collected by him from Zanskar, Ladakh, at the foothills of the Himalayas. Recognising the fossil as a new species, Janvier made the identification and with Gupta submitted the discovery in ''Recent Researches in Geology''.<ref name=":5" /> Shortly after, Janvier went to Sweden where he met [[w:Mee-mann_Chang|Mee-mann Chang]] (also Zhang Miman) from the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology who was working on her doctoral research on fish fossils from China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Mee-mann|last2=Xhu|first2=Xiaobo|date=1997|title=Reexamination of the relationship of Middle Devonian osteolepids – fossil characters and their interpretations|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Reexamination-of-the-Relationship-of-Middle-and-Chang/253a412520912ec1953464edbbf4bbd88e545851|journal=Novitates|volume=3189|pages=1–14}}</ref> Janvier immediately noticed that some of Chang's fossils were exactly like the one he and Gupta had recently described. When inquired, Chang explained to him that the particular specimen was a Devonian [[w:Coelacanth|coelacanth]] she named ''[[w:Youngolepis_praecursor|Youngolepis praecursor]]'' (Figure 3) that was found in Yunnan region and North Vietnam, and so common in those regions that the fossils were frequently used as gifts to visitors. Chang had already published the discovery in January 1981.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Mi-Man|last2=Xu|first2=Xiao-Bei|date=1981-01-20|title=A new crossopterygian, Youngolepis praecursor, gen. et sp. nov., from Lower Devonian of E. Yunnan, China|url=https://www.sciengine.com/Math%20A0/doi/10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|journal=Scientia Sinica|language=en-US|volume=24|issue=1|pages=89–99|doi=10.1360/ya1981-24-1-89|issn=1000-0002}}</ref> Janvier told Gupta to hold their publication, but eventually got it published in 1982 with a few modifications based on Chang's paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1982|title=An osteolepid fish from the middle Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515982|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=8|pages=66–80}}</ref><ref name=":47">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa Jit|date=1990|title=A response to the co-authors|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343307a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=307–308|doi=10.1038/343307a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> With an unsettled mind on the origin of the Himalayan fossil, Janvier reported a note of concern in ''Bulletin of the Indian Geologists Association''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Janvier|first2=P.|date=1981|title=Remarks on an osteolepid fish from the Devonian of Zanskar, Ladakh|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8320471315|journal=Bulletin Indian Geologists' Association|volume=141|page=81}}</ref> remarking that Chang's and Gupta's specimens were "strikingly similar."<ref name=":5" /> Although Gupta avowed that he had never been to the fossil site in China,<ref name=":47" /> it was known that he had a trip to China just before going to France. Janvier was convinced that Gupta had fooled him: "Now, there is no evidence that Gupta brought the fish fossil with him from China, but I'm 99% sure he did."<ref name=":02" /> == The exposé == === Calgary symposium === [[File:Ophiceras sakuntala Trias inf Himalaya.jpg|thumb|Genuine ammonoid fossil, ''Ophiceras sakuntala'', from the Himalayas. [Ghedo, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]] ]] Gupta's practice of fakery was first publicly exposed at the "International Symposium on the Devonian System" held in Calgary, Canada from 17 to 20 August 1987.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/6935963|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last1=McMillan|first1=N. J.|last2=Embry|first2=A. F.|last3=Glass|first3=D. J.|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=581–588}}</ref> The week before, Talent came across a paper by Gupta and German palaeontologist [[w:Heinrich_Karl_Erben|Heinrich Karl Erben]] (Institut für Paläontologie, Bonn) published in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' in 1983 reporting a series of Devonian ammonoids from Himachal Pradesh (Figure 4 is an example of such an ammonoid).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|bibcode=1983PalZ...57...93G|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> When Talent presented his own research at the symposium,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System: Paleontology, Paleoecology and Biostratigraphy|last=Mawson, R.; Talent, J. A.; Bear, V. C.; Brock, G. A.; Farrell, J. R.; Hyland, K. A.; Pyemont, B. D.; Sloan, T. R.; Sorrentino, L; Stewart, M. I.; Trotter, J. A.; Wilson, G. A.; Simpson A. G.|vauthors=|publisher=Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists|year=1988|isbn=0-920230-47-4|location=Calgary (Canada)|pages=485−527}}</ref> he added a discussion on the Himalayan fossils, including Gupta's ammonoids and those from Morocco displaying them side by side on the screen;<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> they appeared "exactly the same".<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another case of identical fossils presented by Talent was from Gupta's accounts of two conodonts in 1975, allegedly collected from two sites 600 kilometres apart and described in two different papers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Geoforensics/ckaYWK-ziToC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA225&printsec=frontcover|title=Geoforensics|last=Ruffell|first=Alastair|last2=McKinley|first2=Jennifer|date=2008-08-06|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-75884-7|page=225|language=en}}</ref> One scientist pointed to Gupta, who was sitting in the front row, and said: "Well, how do you explain having exactly the same fossils in two localities 600 kilometres apart?" An infuriated Gupta stormed out of the room and re-entered clenching his fist as he tried to punch Talent, but was prevented by other participants.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Linse|first=Pat|last2=Smith|first2=Jim W. W.|last3=Loxton|first3=Daniel|last4=Loxton|first4=Jason|date=2011-09-22|title=Fossil fakes: Part two|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA280092459&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10639330&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon~f1ff51e6&aty=open-web-entry|journal=Skeptic (Altadena, CA)|language=English|volume=17|issue=1|pages=64B–64B}}</ref> He shouted to the organisers, demanding the list of all participants and Talent's manuscript.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The committee of the Calgary symposium informed the Vice Chancellor of Panjab University of the incident as well as associated issues with Gupta's research, but no action appeared to be taken.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Majury|first2=Niall|last3=Brooks|first3=William E.|date=2012-02-01|title=Geological fakes and frauds|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825211001735|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=111|issue=1|pages=224–231|bibcode=2012ESRv..111..224R|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.12.001|issn=0012-8252|s2cid=129095795}}</ref> In spite of the public exposition, only fossil experts at the symposium knew of the case, and Gupta continued to publish research papers.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === ''Courier'' publication === The director of [[w:Naturmuseum_Senckenberg|Naturmuseum Senckenberg]] in Frankfurt, Germany, had attended the Calgary symposium and asked Talent to allow publication of his presentation, who agreed.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> The account was published in the serial ''Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg'' as a 50-page article "Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies" in 1988. Pickett with Rajendra Kumar Goel and Arvind Kumar Jain of the University of Roorkee (now [[w:IIT_Roorkee|IIT Roorkee]]), India, co-authored the paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Talent|first1=John A.|last2=Goel|first2=Rajendra K.|last3=Jain|first3=Arvind K.|last4=Pickett|first4=John W.|date=1988-11-01|title=Silurian and Devonian of India, Nepal and Bhutan: Biostratigraphic and Palaeobiogeographic Anomalies|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783510611591/Silurian-and-Devonian-of-India-Nepal-and-Bhutan-Biostratigraphic-and-Palaeobiogeographic-Anomalies|journal=Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg|language=en|volume=106|pages=1–57|issn=0341-4116|access-date=2023-12-29}}</ref> The document exposed over a hundred fossil frauds in Gupta's research involving five books and 458 articles, published with 128 co-authors during 25 years.<ref name=":48">{{Cite journal|last=Molina|first=Eustoquio|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta: El fraude de los fósiles reciclados abre el debate en el seno de la comunidad científica|url=https://www.academia.edu/9281608/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta_El_fraude_de_los_f%C3%B3siles_reciclados_abre_el_debate_en_el_seno_de_la_comunidad_cient%C3%ADfica|journal=La Alternativa Racional|language=Spanish|volume=33|pages=23–25}}</ref> However, the ''Courier'' had a limited circulation and the article was not widely read.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> === Publications in ''Nature'' and ''Science'' === The case became a global news when ''Nature'' invited Talent to publish a summary of the ''Courier'' article. In a three-page commentary, Talent provided reasons to suspect that Gupta's fossils were bought, stolen or received as gifts from various parts of the world, and not authentically collected from the Himalayan region,<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> and that Gupta's research was a "quagmire of palaeontological disinformation."<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Published on 20 April 1989 issue, Talent's headline in ''Nature'' runs "The case of the peripatetic fossils",<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref> and the commentary concluded as follows:<blockquote>Rhinos in Rio? Kangaroos in Kashmir? Well, something as remarkable biogeographically is said to have occurred. At first sight it might appear that a whole circus of exotica – mainly invertebrate – was let loose and fossilized seriatim in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sequences of the Himalayas. Earth scientists in general, and palaeontologists in particular, have blissfully assumed that, apart from the [[w:Piltdown_Man|Piltdown Man]], their science was largely free from attempts to pollute the literature. There have been cases of practical jokes, and examples of misappropriation of materials by individuals over-eager to publish. But compared with the cornucopia of items disgorged into the stratigraphy of the Himalayan region over the past 25 years, such instances are mere bagatelles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-04-20|title=The case of the peripatetic fossils|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338613a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=613–615|bibcode=1989Natur.338..613T|doi=10.1038/338613a0|issn=|s2cid=37829395}}</ref></blockquote>It immediately prompted media investigations. The most influential was from ''[[w:Science_(journal)|Science]]'' as its news editor [[w:Roger_Lewin|Roger Lewin]] made journalistic enquiry contacting the scientists involved. Lewin published his report on 21 April 1989, which included the following from Talent:<blockquote>The database for the Silurian and Devonian of the Himalaya has become so extensively marred by error, inconsistency and implausibility as to throw grave doubts on the scientific validity of any conclusions that might be drawn from it. An appropriate way to approach this problem and clarify many of the questions raised would be through an independent fact-finding commission set up to probe most of the legions of paleontologically anomalous and suspect reports.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref></blockquote>The story became widely known from ''Nature'' and ''Science'' articles, more so by a series of four ''Nature'' articles titled "the peripatetic fossils" between 1989 and 1990; a defence from Gupta,<ref name=":24" /> comments by Arun Deep Ahluwalia, S B Bhatia, Udai K Bassi, and Philippe Janvier<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":23"/><ref name=":51"/><ref name=":5"/> and John Bruce Waterhouse,<ref name=":28" /> and last by Talent's summary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1990|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 5|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343405a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=405–406|doi=10.1038/343405a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> It was these reports that brought the case to an international level.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruffell|first1=Alastair|last2=Schneck|first2=Bill|date=2017-06-01|title=International case studies in forensic geology: fakes and frauds, homicides and environmental crime|url=https://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|journal=Episodes Journal of International Geoscience|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=172–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017020|doi-access=free}}</ref> == The fossils == === Conodonts === The principal fossils of dispute were the conodonts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruban|first=Dmitry A.|date=2022-06-01|title=A review of the Late Triassic conodont conundrum: survival beyond biotic perturbations|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|journal=Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments|language=en|volume=102|issue=2|pages=373–382|bibcode=2022PdPe..102..373R|doi=10.1007/s12549-021-00505-z|issn=1867-1608|s2cid=237366862}}</ref> One of the first and most well-understood conodont fossils was from the Amsdell Creek in New York, USA, which were determined as Devonian in age.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Müller|first=Klaus J.|date=1956|title=Taxonomy, Nomenclature, Orientation, and Stratigraphic Evaluation of Conodonts|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1300586|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=30|issue=6|pages=1324–1340|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1300586}}</ref> With the help of English geologists [[w:Frank_H._T._Rhodes|Frank H. T. Rhodes]] and R. L. Austin, Gupta reported a discovery titled "Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir" in ''Nature'' in 1967,<ref name=":1" /> the first conodont report from India,<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Forensic_Geoscience/w35I2xvUQioC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA321&printsec=frontcover|title=An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience|last=Bergslien|first=Elisa|date=2012-03-23|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9833-5|page=321|language=en}}</ref> and continued to discover several conodonts in and around Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Die Stratigraphie der alpin-mediterranen Trias / The Stratigraphy of the Alpine-Mediterranean Triassic|last=Gupta|first=V.|date=1974|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7091-4497-8|editor-last=Zapfe|editor-first=Helmuth|series=Schriftenreihe der Erdwissenschaftlichen Kommissionen|volume=2|location=Vienna|pages=97–99|language=en|chapter=Permo-Triassic Boundary in the Himalaya|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7091-4497-8_11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Carboniferous of the World|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Waterhouse|first2=J.B.|last3=Bhargava|first3=O.N.|date=1983|publisher=IGME|isbn=978-84-398-5670-2|editor-last=Días|editor-first=Carlos Martínez|pages=147–151|language=en|chapter=Indian Subcontinent|editor-last2=España|editor-first2=Instituto Geológico y Minero de|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC81wR8LXWoC&dq=Gupta+conodonts+1967&pg=PA147}}</ref> According to Talent, it is "statistically beyond the bounds of possibility<nowiki>'' that Devonian conodonts were present in the Himalayas, and that Gupta'</nowiki>s specimens probably were those of the Amsdell Creek.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Klapper also concurred, saying, "[It] is impossible to be 100% certain that the conodonts Gupta reports on come from New York and not the Himalayas as he claims, but I am as certain as I can be."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Gary D. Webster, Carl B. Rexroad and Talent published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers" in 1993 based on an investigation of 19 of Gupta's collaborators. They found that Gupta recycled his conodont reports in 15 publications.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|last2=Rexroad|first2=Carl B.|last3=Talent|first3=John A.|date=1993-05-01|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta conodont papers|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022336000036933/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=486–493|doi=10.1017/S0022336000036933|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1306034|s2cid=130317390}}</ref> === Ammonoids === Talent was convinced that Gupta's ammonoid specimens originally came from a fossil site near Erfoud, Morocco. The characteristic features showed their identity. Talent had come across the same Moroccan ammonoids at the fossil shop in Paris and noticed that they exactly matched the images Gupta had used in his publications.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He also discovered that Gupta had claimed the source of the conodonts and ammonoids as from the same rock strata, and such could not have been the case since the two groups of animals lived 15 million years apart.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By May 1989, Gupta emphatically wrote Erben that the fossils were authentically of the Himalayas, to which Erben was inclined to make a statement in ''Paläontologische Zeitschrift'' defending his position, stating: "Whatever the truth in this highly detestable affair may be, my personal responsibility in the paper under discussion has been, and still is, restricted to its taxonomical and morphological parts as well as to the illustrations."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=H. K.|date=1989-12-01|title=Statement concerning a paper on Devonian allegedly Himalayan ammonoids|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02989519|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=335|bibcode=1989PalZ...63..335E|doi=10.1007/BF02989519|s2cid=129369116}}</ref> Webster published "An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989" in 1991 and asserted that the observation "leaves no doubt that these fraudulent practices were knowingly continued over the past 25 years." He found 28 of Gupta's papers containing dubious information on the fossil discoveries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Gary D.|date=1991-11-25|title=An evaluation of the V. J. Gupta echinoderm papers, 1971–1989|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S002233600003331X/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Paleontology|language=en|volume=65|issue=6|pages=1006–1008|doi=10.1017/S002233600003331X|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1305833|s2cid=132465759}}</ref> === Gupta's strategy === Gupta was careful in his research publications and would ask eminent scientists to collaborate. He would provide the fossils with the basic geological details and his collaborators made the fossil identification, so that they became "unsuspecting partners in crime," as Bhargava lamented,<ref name=":34" /> or unwitting "partners in the deception", according to Bangalore Puttaiya Radhakrishna, editor of the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India.''<ref name=":26" /> As in the case of his first major publication in ''Nature'' in 1967, Gupta was able to convince Rhodes from the [[w:University_College_of_Swansea|University College of Swansea]] (later president of [[w:Cornell_University|Cornell University]]) and Austin from the [[w:University_of_Southampton|University of Southampton]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|bibcode=1967Natur.216..468G|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Gary Webster at [[w:Washington_State_University|Washington State University]] had coauthored nine of Gupta's papers and asserted that his identification of the [[w:Crinoid|crinoid]] fossils were genuine, but later conceded that he was "virtually certain" they were obtained from places other than the Himalayas. He declared that Gupta "willfully tried to dupe the scientific community.<nowiki>''</nowiki><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> By 1989, Gupta had collaborated with 128 scientists around the world, including Berry, Director of the University of California, Berkeley's Museum of Paleontology,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=William B. N.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1966|title=Monograptids from the Kashmir Himalayas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1301950|journal=Journal of Paleontology|volume=40|issue=6|pages=1338–1344|issn=0022-3360|jstor=1301950}}</ref> Kiril J. Budurov of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Budurov|first1=K. J.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Kachroo|first3=R. K.|date=1984-08-01|title=Some Permian Conodonts from the Zewan Formation, Kashmir Himalaya|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65298|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=25|issue=8|pages=533–536|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Michael E. Brookfield of the University of Guelph in Ontario,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brookfield|first1=M. E.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1988|title=The Devonian of Northern Gondwanaland: A Himalayan Viewpoint and Terrane Analysis|url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg_sp/data/014/014001/579_cspgsp014a0579.htm|journal=Devonian of the World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Devonian System — Memoir 14|language=en-US|volume=1|pages=579–589}}</ref> Erben,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|s2cid=129440526}}</ref> Gerhard R. Fuchs of the Geological Survey of Austria,<ref name=":44">{{Cite journal|last1=Fuchs|first1=G.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1971|title=Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Chamba (Panjab Himalayas)|url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/VerhGeolBundesanstalt_1971_0068-0097.pdf|journal=Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt|volume=1|issue=6|pages=68–97}}</ref> Andrzej Gaździcki of the Polish Academy of Sciences,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gaździcki|first1=Andrzej|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|date=1981|title=Triassic foraminifers Involutinidae from West Carpathians and Himalayas - its stratigraphic and paleobiogeographic implications|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283854385|journal=Bulletin - Geological Society of India|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101–106}}</ref> Janvier,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janvier|first=Philippe|date=1997|title=In retrospect chosen by Philippe Janvier|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=389|issue=6652|pages=688|doi=10.1038/39519|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref> Makoto Kato of Hokkaido University,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kato|first1=Makoto|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa Jit|date=1989|title=Late Palaeozoic Corals from the Himalayas|url=https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/36757|journal=Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. Series 4, Geology and Mineralogy|volume=22|issue=3|pages=399–424|issn=0018-3474}}</ref> Rhodes,<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Rhodes|first2=F. H. T.|last3=Austin|first3=R. L.|date=1967-10-30|title=Devonian Conodonts from Kashmir|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/216468a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=216|issue=5114|pages=468–469|doi=10.1038/216468a0|issn=1476-4687|s2cid=4268562}}</ref> Jovan Stöcklin from Zurich,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Stöcklin|first2=J.|date=1978|title=Stratigraphy and structure of the Phulchauki-Chandragiri area, Nepal|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|volume=7|pages=263−275}}</ref> Geneviève Termier of the University of Paris,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Termier|first2=Geneviere|date=1983-04-01|title=Middle Devonian Corals from Central Bhutan|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65268|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=212–215|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Susan Turner of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=V. J.|last2=Turner|first2=Susan|date=1973|title=Oldest Indian Fish|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=110|issue=5|pages=483–484|doi=10.1017/S001675680003627X|issn=1469-5081|doi-access=free}}</ref> Waterhouse of the University of Queensland,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waterhouse|first1=J. B.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|date=1979-09-01|title=Early Permian Fossils from Southern Tibet, Like Faunas from Peninsular India and Lesser Himalayas of Garhwal|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/64587|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=20|issue=9|pages=461–464|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> and Gary Dean Webster of the Washington State University.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Webster|first2=G.D.|date=1980|title=Palaeozoic crinoids from Ladakh, Himalaya, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8120347802|journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia|volume=83|issue=1|pages=1−18}}</ref> Gupta's most prolific foreign collaborator was Waterhouse who co-authored 19 research papers,<ref name=":48" /> followed by Webster with nine papers.<ref name=":0" /> Gupta's intention in associating with notable scientists was manifest when he defended his works, writing in ''Nature'' that it "is seldom possible to do fieldwork in the Himalayas by oneself" and gave a list of scientists he had teamed up with.<ref name=":24" /> He also stressed repeatedly that he sought experts from various countries to corroborate his findings.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":41" /> In his ''Nature'' commentary, he stated that the graptolites reported in his earliest works''<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":38" />'' were substantiated by Sir [[w:Cyril_James_Stubblefield|Cyril James Stubblefield]], then director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and that the fossil site had been verified by his doctoral supervisor Sahni in October 1964. Sahni's companions and travel records indicated that he did visit Kashmir at the time indicated but only to attend a scientific seminar. As Ashok Sahni, son of Sahni and colleague of Gupta, vouchsafed the alibi: "Sahni neither visited the graptolite localities nor did he accompany the post-seminar field excursion."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sahni|first=Ashoki|date=1989-11|title=Sahni visit denied|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/342338c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=342|issue=6248|pages=338–338|doi=10.1038/342338c0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In another case, Gupta investigated the lower Phuchauki in Nepal with Vinod Singh Chhetri from the Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, in 1974. He published four solo papers between 1975 and 1976 including three on conodont finds. In 1977, he published the geological study in ''Chayanica Geologica'' with Chhetri's name on it but without the latter's knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|last2=Chhetri|first2=V.S.|date=1977|title=Geology of the area around Phulchauki, Kathmandu, Nepal|journal=Chayanica Geologica|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133−146}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Dangol|first2=Gopal M. S.|last3=Chhetri|first3=Vinod Singh|date=1991-07-01|title=Biostratigraphic reports - Spurious and Dubious - from Nepal|url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JNGS/article/view/32577|journal=Journal of Nepal Geological Society|volume=7|doi=10.3126/jngs.v7i0.32577|issn=2676-1378}}</ref> When Chhetri came to know of the publication, he requested Gupta for the data and fossil specimens so that he could confirm them; he never got a response.<ref name=":43" /> Gupta continued to report other fossils from different locations of Nepal, including a series of mammals from Gidhniya in western Nepal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Vishwa J.|date=1984-01-01|title=Plio-pleistocene mammals from Gidhniya village Western Nepal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699584800212|journal=Geobios|volume=17|issue=4|pages=493–499|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(84)80021-2|issn=0016-6995}}</ref> Chhetri affirmed that Gupta never explored Nepal other than Phuchauki (not even the upper area, contrary to Gupta's report<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V.J.|date=1975|title=Upper Devonian conodonts from Phulchauki, Nepal|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/download/13323/12468/39437&ved|journal=Himalayan Geology|volume=5|pages=153−168}}</ref>), and never collected any fossil of interest.<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":43" /> To make the matter even more convoluted, Talent discovered from Ziegler that he had trained Gupta on conodont analysis at Marburg. Ziegler recalled Gupta having conodonts similar to those of Amsdell Creek, and asked why he was interested in the American fossils, the latter phlegmatically answered that they were from Nepal. That was a year before Gupta's Nepal exploration, in 1973.<ref name=":43" /> One modus operandi of Gupta was that he kept the locations of the fossils vague so that it would be difficult for peers to vindicate or refute the reports.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":31" /> When other scientists investigated, they never found the exact location or the fossils in the area from where they were allegedly collected.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta had shrewdly justified that the Indian Government restricted the use of detailed topographic or army maps for political and strategic reasons around the Himalayas,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and the maps were especially restricted for foreigners.<ref name=":41" /> He once said: "As an Indian, it is not possible for me to take such liberties [disclosing Himalayan maps to foreign scientists] and to go against the 'Law of the Land'."<ref name=":50">{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1990-06-01|title=Discussion: Comments by V. J. Gupta|url=https://www.geosocindia.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66368|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|pages=649–655|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Gupta was also an unapologetic plagiarist and thief. His 1966 thesis contained images of coral fossils from the 1908<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1908|title=I.—Sedgwick Museum Notes: New Fossils from the Haverford-west District. VIII|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/abs/isedgwick-museum-notes-new-fossils-from-the-haverfordwest-district-viii/C15E6E01673B105A0B25F77ADD333E73|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=5|issue=10|pages=433–436|doi=10.1017/S0016756800122368|issn=1469-5081}}</ref> and 1912<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAWvQAAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ordovician and Silurian Fossils from the Central Himalayas|last=Reed|first=F. R. Cowper|date=1912|publisher=Geological Survey|language=en}}</ref> reports of [[w:Frederick_Richard_Cowper_Reed|Frederick Richard Cowper Reed]], a British geologist who surveyed the Himalayas and Burma (now Myanmar). The same images from Reed were used in two of Gupta's papers published in the ''Panjab University Research Bulletin'', in volumes 20 and 21. Gupta's coral fossils most likely came from the Amsdell Creek specimens maintained at the [[w:Aberystwyth_University|Aberystwyth University]] in Wales,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wyatt|first=Antony R.|date=1990-06-01|title=V. J. Gupta and the Aberystwyth Fossil Collections|url=https://indianjournalofcapitalmarkets.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66328|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=587–592|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> where he had done a research work in 1967.<ref name=":50" /> In 1992, researchers at the Aberystwyth University intimated to ''Nature'' that Gupta's fossils were identical to those missing from their collection.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> One of Brock's observations was that Gupta had used fossil images in several instances from the reports of British geologists in the early 20th century: "And all that Gupta had done was take some scissors and cut out the specimens, put them down on a new plate with a new number on them and claim them as his own – and these were samples from somewhere very different, from parts of Somalia."<ref name=":3" /> In a ''Nature'' commentary, Ahluwalia, Gupta's colleague and co-author in several papers,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=Arun D.|last2=Gupta|first2=Vishwa J.|date=1988-01-01|title=Tal Formation of Himalaya - a century old stratigraphic riddle nearing solution|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/nos/detail/21/86659/Tal_Formation_of_Himalaya_a_century_old_stratigraphic_riddle_nearing_solution|journal=Newsletters on Stratigraphy|language=en|pages=49–58|doi=10.1127/nos/21/1989/49}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> admitted that Talent's accusations were valid.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/At_The_Fringes_Of_Science/rwHFDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gupta+talent+himalaya&pg=PA135&printsec=frontcover|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|location=New York/London|pages=135−136|language=en}}</ref> He disclosed that once during the visit of their Bulgarian friend Budurov (whom Gupta later remarked as the "most callous" collaborator<ref name=":47" />) to the Panjab University in 1980, Gupta apparently planted conodont fossils in the limestone samples. As Budurov was about to examine the tiny fossils, Gupta insisted that he prepare fresh samples to let the fossils settle down in a solution. Ahluwalia recollected that he had not seen the fossils from that particular sample earlier, but as Gupta "prepared" it, numerous conodonts became visible. Ahluwalia did not suspect any misdeed at the time but in hindsight was "rather embarrassed at having initially missed the assemblage, but was happy at the 'discovery'."<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Upper Palaeozoic of Lahul-Spiti |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341013a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=13–15|doi=10.1038/341013a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The three of them published the discovery in two articles in 1982.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D|last2=Budurov|first2=K. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Some remarks on the new find of lower triassic Conodonts from Lahaul and Spiti regions, Himachal Pradesh, India|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9515997|journal=Recent Researches in Geology|pages=274–278}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=A. D.|last2=Gupta|first2=V.J.|last3=Budurov|first3=K. J.|last4=Kanwar|first4=S. S.|date=1982|title=Devonian conodonts from Spiti Himalaya, India|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/RIPS/article/view/20166|journal=Rivista Italian di Paleontologia E Stratigrafia|volume=88|issue=2|pages=20166|doi=10.54103/2039-4942/20166|issn=2039-4942}}</ref> Following Talent's allegations, Ahluwalia later processed the original rock sample and could find no fossil at all. He also cited several instances of fossils collected and reported from sites which Gupta apparently never explored.<ref name=":21"/> Another colleague, Shashi Bhushan Bhatia recalled his suspicion when Gupta told him that the rock samples from [[w:Kurig|Kurig]] were of Devonian, and gave Bhatia [[w:Ostracod|ostracod]] fossils that he claimed were from the same sediments. Bhatia saw two irregularities. One, his own exploration of the same site gave a much younger geological age, [[w:Permo-Carboniferous|Permo-Carboniferous]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> and he could not recall a single instance of Gupta visiting Kurig. In another, as Gupta requested, Bhatia took the samples in 1972 to the [[w:British_Museum_of_Natural_History|British Museum of Natural History in London]]. There, Bhatia analysed the specimens and found that they were the same as those from [[w:Haragan_Formation|Haragan Formation]] in Oklahoma.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – Early Devonian ostracodes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015a0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–15|doi=10.1038/341015a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Yet, in good faith, he, Jain and Gupta reported the discovery of the Himalayan ostracod in 1982.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=S. B|last2=Jain|first2=S. P.|last3=Gupta|first3=V. J.|date=1982|title=Lower Devonian ostracode fauna from Spiti and its palaeobiogeographical significance|url=https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=9423200|journal=Miscellaneous publication - Geological survey of India|pages=283–293|issn=0579-4706|via=Pascal and Francis}}</ref> When the controversy broke out in 1989, Bhatia consulted Robert Folke Lundin at [[w:Arizona_State_University|Arizona State University]], who confirmed that the Himalayan ostracods were the same as the American specimens,<ref name=":23"/> which he had described in 1968.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://libcat.colorado.edu/Record/b2860582/Details?sid=21552470|title=Ostracodes of the Haragan formation (Devonian) in Oklahoma|last=Lundin|first=Robert F.|date=1968|publisher=University of Oklahoma|series=Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin|location=|pages=116}}</ref> On the same sediments, another collaborator, Udai K. Bassi of the [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]], later verified that Kurig does not contain Devonian deposits but only of a much younger [[w:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]] sediment,<ref name=":51">{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=Udai K. |date=1989-09-07 |title=The peripatetic fossils: part 3 – The Kinnaur region |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341015b0 |journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=15–16|doi=10.1038/341015b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and that the border and village records in which visitors are normally listed did not have any mention of Gupta visiting the site.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In the same vein, Gupta and Erben reported in 1983 the occurrance of Carnian (298 to 272 million years old) conodonts and ammonoids from Khimokul La.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|last2=Erben|first2=H. K.|date=1983-06-01|title=A late devonian ammonoid faunula from himachal pradesh, india|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03031752|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=93–102|doi=10.1007/BF03031752|issn=1236-9874}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=V. J.|date=1983-03-01|title=Carnian Conodonts from Tidong Valley, Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/65193|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=156–158|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> Bassi, who had surveyed the area several times, attested that there is no Carnian sediment there and that the check-post register or the villagers had no record of Gupta, Erben or any foreigner.<ref name=":51" /> == Reactions == Talent expressed that Gupta "inundated geological and biogeographical literature of the Himalayas with a blizzard of disinformation so extensive as to render the literature almost useless."<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> Gupta said to ''[[w:The_New_York_Times|The New York Times]]'' that he had invited Talent to Panjab University and the Himalayan sites to verify the research findings following the Calgary incident,<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> but that Talent had declined.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In trying to undermine the accusations, he described the affair as "minor disagreements over taxonomy among experts."<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Indian palaeontology under a cloud|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093010|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=1|pages=13–13|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24093010}}</ref> He defended himself by claiming Talent<nowiki>'s allegations as "'malicious bias and professional jealousy'' based on lies that were "building up a story without any basis.'' He added, ''We've had differences for the past 20 years, and he's trying to cash in on them.'' Talent admitted that he did reject Gupta'</nowiki>s invitation to visit Panjab University as he felt it more appropriate for independent investigations from other scientists to make inspections.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the ''Science'' report, Webster admitted having already had the information on the similarity between the Himalayan fossils and those in America and Europe, especially the crinoids which were found only in the United States. Commenting on Talent's Calgary speech, he conceded: "I am now virtually certain that most of these specimens did come from places other than the Himalayas. I certainly should have been more wary."<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> Janvier also stated that he had asked Gupta to make site expedition himself where the fossils were collected, to which Gupta replied that it was not possible due to political reasons. In his commentary "Breakdown of trust" in ''Nature'', he decried the lack of awareness on scientific frauds and wrote: "The Gupta case may just be a 'big noise'."<ref name=":5"/> Erben responded to Lewin's report claiming his innocence in ''Science'', while admitting that Talent could be right, he blamed him for "zealous exaggerations" as Talent trusted a Paris shopkeeper rather than him. While avowing that he and Gupta were qualified scientists, he disparaged Talent as "without qualifications". He retorted: "However, while really cogent evidence is, indeed, lacking, the circumstantial evidence assembled by Talent seems to be rather convincing."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erben|first=Heinrich K.|date=1989-09-15|title=Carelessness, or Good Faith?|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=245|issue=4923|pages=1165–1166|doi=10.1126/science.245.4923.1165.c|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Talent replied, blaming Erben for ignoring or not being aware of a series of fossils Gupta produced and for trying to downplay the fraud allegations. He mentioned that the Morroccon-type ammonoids were available in large supplies not only in Paris, but also in Sydney, Australia, which Erben could have investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|date=1989-11-10|title=The "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|journal=Science|language=en|volume=246|issue=4931|pages=740–741|doi=10.1126/science.246.4931.740.b|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=239850370}}</ref> Writing in ''Nature'', Gupta made a defensive response in September 1989. He upheld that most of his explorations were done with other researchers and that he was not alone in visiting the allegedly dubious sites. Referring to the Devonian fish which he described with Janvier in 1982, he asserted that he had never met Chang or visited her institute so that the specimen as a gift was an implausibility.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> However, he made a misinterpretation of Lewin's report which simply said that Chang had explained the availability of the fossils in China and North Vietnam.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Lewin|first=R.|date=1989-04-21|title=The Case of the "Misplaced" Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.244.4902.277|journal=Science|volume=244|issue=4902|pages=277–279|doi=10.1126/science.244.4902.277|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17738290}}</ref> He made a scathing remark:<blockquote>John Talent has made sweeping pronouncements on Himalayan geology. Yet he is not an authority on the subject. I can only conclude that his attack on me was made for two reasons – to draw attention to himself and to deflect criticism of his own failure to contribute to Himalayan geology.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|last=Jit Gupta|first=Vishwa|date=1989-09-07|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 2|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/341011a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=341|issue=6237|pages=11–12|doi=10.1038/341011a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref></blockquote>A. K. Prasad, then director of Gupta's department at Panjab University, backed up Gupta, saying that Talent's accusation was "a conspiracy to denigrate a top Indian scientist".<ref name=":41">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1989-04-01|title=Gupta affirms authenticity|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/338694a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=338|issue=6218|pages=694–694|doi=10.1038/338694a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> On the other hand, Ahluwalia affirmed that the fossils were recycled and assigned made-up localities, commenting that "most of the doubts expressed by Talent are well-founded" and that it was a "great embarrassment" that made him want to retract the published reports which he and Budurov co-authored.<ref name=":21" /> Expressing his dismay on revealing Gupta's manipulation of data and fabricated specimens in a report he co-authored about the discovery of a conodont, ''Neogondollela regale'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bassi|first=U. K.|last2=Gupta|first2=V. J.|last3=Chopra|first3=S.|last4=Budurov|first4=K. J.|last5=Ahluwalia|first5=A. D.|date=1988|title=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|url=Neogondolella regale from the Tidong Valley of Kinnaur, Himachal Himalaya, India|journal=Indian Geologists' Association Bulletin|volume=212|pages=155−158}}</ref> Bassi considered withdrawal of the paper.<ref name=":51" /> The editor of ''Nature'' found Gupta's commentary unimpressive, noting that "close readings of the accusations and responses leaves the impression that Gupta's defence is flimsy."<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> The only collaborator to stand up for Gupta was Waterhouse. Calling Talent's accusation "A case of exaggeration",<ref name=":28" /> Waterhouse stated that Gupta's specimens were definitely collected from the Himalayas.<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> He asserted that the Himalayan research was reported with accurate locations, as he had verified the fossils and explored the fossil sites himself. He criticised Talent for never examining first-hand the actual fossils, and Ahluwalia for misrepresenting some of the reports. He defended Gupta by saying there could have been a bit of sloppy field and laboratory work<ref name=":46" /> but no fraudulent intention, while admitting that Gupta's geological descriptions (stratigraphy) were "often too coarse and too rushed." Commenting in ''Nature'', he wrote: "I can personally vouch that much of Gupta's materials emphatically came from the Himalayas... The 'case' against Gupta is remarkably rich in bold metaphors and unproven assertions, and somewhat thin in scientific analysis."<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Waterhouse|first=J. B.|date=1990-01-25|title=The peripatetic fossils: part 4|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343305a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6256|pages=305–307|doi=10.1038/343305a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Panjab University issued a circular in 1990 that "it is interested not in brushing the controversy under the carpet, but arriving at the truth." It sought help from major authorities including the [[w:University_Grants_Commission_(India)|University Grants Commission]], [[w:Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research|Indian Council of Medical Research]], [[w:Indian_National_Science_Academy|Indian National Science Academy]], [[w:Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research|Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[w:Wadia_Institute_of_Himalayan_Geology|Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology]], [[w:Department_of_Science_and_Technology_(India)|Department of Science and Technology]], and [[w:Geological_Survey_of_India|Geological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990|title=Panjab University defends itself in Gupta affair|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24092918|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=5|pages=244–244|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Then in March that year, the university took a controversial decision by instituting a scientific expedition team,<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwHFDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA135&dq=himalayan+fossils+gupta&hl=en|title=At The Fringes Of Science|last=Friedlander|first=Michael W.|date=2018-03-05|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97071-9|pages=135–136|language=en}}</ref> to be led by Gupta. The [[w:Geological_Society_of_India|Geological Society of India]] was disappointed by the proposal, as Radhakrishna remarked: "We fail to understand why Gupta should have been asked to lead the expedition. Besides, it is beyond our comprehension as to how allegations of recycling can be proved or disproved in the field."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radhakrishna|first=B. P.|date=1990|title=Inaction on a Himalayan scandal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093708|journal=Current Science|volume=59|issue=9|pages=441–441|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The Geological Survey of India<ref name=":13" />{{Efn|Jayaraman mistook Geological Survey of India for Geological Society of India.}} and the Society for Scientific Values (led by [[w:Autar_Singh_Paintal|Autar Singh Paintal]]) independently organized a one-week expedition to the Himalayan fossil sites. Gupta refrained from the expedition due to "poor health".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1990-09-27|title=Down from the mountain|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/347318b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=347|issue=6291|pages=318–318|doi=10.1038/347318b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The investigators submitted their reports to Panjab University in December 1990. In February 1991, the university accepted the allegations and Gupta was momentarily suspended from service the next month.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holden|first=Constance|date=1991-03-15|title=Indian geologist suspended|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|journal=Science|language=en|volume=251|issue=4999|pages=1310–1310|doi=10.1126/science.251.4999.1310|issn=0036-8075|jstor=2875514}}</ref> The report of the Society for Scientific Values was kept confidential.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The Indian National Science Academy also conducted an independent investigation but failed to come up with a definitive conclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-02-01|title=Scandal upon scandal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/343396a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=343|issue=6257|pages=396–396|doi=10.1038/343396a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-03-01|title=Gupta takes to the hills|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/344187a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=344|issue=6263|pages=187–187|doi=10.1038/344187a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> === Geological Society of India === The Geological Society of India, which claimed that it normally avoids controversial matters for publications in its ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'', fearing that "the accusations [against Gupta] could be construed as quiescence" was obliged to publish two articles from Talent further damning the research malpractices of Gupta.<ref name=":26"/> In the first paper published in December 1989, Talent's team gave an elaborate account of fossil recycling and mismatching of the fossil sources.<ref name=":39">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Kato|first4=Makato|last5=Morante|first5=Richard|last6=Talent|first6=Ross C.|date=1989-12-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologic Database Polluted by Recycling and Other Anomalies|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66405|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=34|issue=6|pages=575–586|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> In the next article published in June 1990, details of Gupta's plagiarisms were documented.<ref name=":40">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John A.|last2=Brock|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Engelbretsen|first3=Michael J.|last4=Gaetani|first4=Maurizio|last5=Jell|first5=Peter A.|last6=Mawson|first6=Ruth|last7=Talent|first7=Ross C.|last8=Webster|first8=Gary D.|date=1990-06-01|title=Himalayan Palaeontologie Database Polluted: Plagiarism and Other Anomalies|url=https://indianjournalofmarketing.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/66325|journal=Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=569–585|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> As Ian Anderson reported in ''[[w:New_Scientist|New Scientist]]'', the Geological Society of India made a "controversial move" by issuing an [[w:Expression_of_concern|expression of concern]], stating that "the fossil finds of V J Gupta are not reliable", although they did not formally retract any of Gupta's papers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917551-600-himalayan-scandal-rocks-indian-science/|title=Himalayan scandal rocks Indian science|last=Anderson|first=Ian|date=1991-02-01|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The society reassessed Gupta's papers and found "several discrepancies lending support to the accusations levelled against V. J. Gupta" in 19 publications.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> The society's scientists visited seven localities in the Himalayas from where Gupta claimed to have collected Devonian fossils, but found no such evidence,<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> declaring "the falsification of facts attempted by Gupta."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> They requested Gupta for access to his specimen collections, research notes and laboratory register for verification, but never received any response.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Gupta's fossils may be Himalayan fakes, says GSI|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093206|journal=Current Science|volume=60|issue=3|pages=138–138|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> The report titled "The Himalayan Fossil Controversy" was issued on 1 January 1991, condemning Gupta's works as "fictitious and based on spurious fossils" and "incomplete bordering on disinformation."<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It ran the pronouncements:<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=|date=1991-01-01|title=The Himalayan Fossil Controversy|url=https://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/JGSI/article/view/70809|journal=Journal of Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=80–88|issn=0974-6889}}</ref><blockquote> * The most glaring deficiency noticed in nearly all the papers is the absence of precise locality information. Subsequent field checks by officers of the Geological Survey of India and some of Gupta's own colleagues have failed to reveal not only the fossils, but also rock formations stated to have been present in the area... He [Gupta] has failed to produce the originals of the recycled fossils with their registration number, date of collection, field description as entered in Field Note Books and Laboratory Registers and such other evidences which could confirm the genuineness of his fossil collections. * It is obvious from the volume of evidence that has now been collected that the fossil finds of V. J. Gupta are not reliable, that there are internal inconsistencies, that the data is incomplete bordering on disinformation. * The Society has no other alternative but to publish the evaluation report with the recommendation that ''the incomplete and doubtful fossil records as published in the Journal and listed in the enclosed report be ignored till such time that independent proof is forthcoming of the in situ existence of the fossils'' [emphasis in original]. </blockquote> == Consequences == The Panjab University Vice Chancellor [[w:Ram_Prakash_Bambah|Ram Prakash Bambah]] issued Gupta's suspension order in February 1991.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1991-02-01|title=Gupta faces suspension|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/349645a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=349|issue=6311|pages=645|bibcode=1991Natur.349..645J|doi=10.1038/349645a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> As [[w:Triloki_Nath_Kapoor|Triloki Nath Kapoor]] soon replaced him, Gupta was reinstated in January 1992.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maddox|first=John|date=1992-02-01|title=Back from the dead|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355578c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6361|pages=578–578|doi=10.1038/355578c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> That year, the University Grants Commission of India stopped its funding to Gupta,<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":45">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994|title=Fossil inquiry finds Indian geologist guilty of plagiarism|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/369698b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=369|issue=6483|pages=698–698|doi=10.1038/369698b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> and ''Nature'' reported a note of disappointment over Gupta's reinstallation, calling it an "Indian rope trick".<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":49">{{Cite journal|date=1994|title=Another rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371726a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6500|pages=726–726|doi=10.1038/371726a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The resurgent controversy compelled Kapoor for a proper action.<ref name=":45" /> The affair was investigated in an official inquiry led by [[w:Man_Mohan_Singh_Gujral|Man Mohan Singh Gujral]], the retired Chief Justice of the Sikkim High Court.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> The inquiry started in February 1992 and lasted two years with the final report submitted in April 1994. Gupta could not make any evidential rebuttal, resorting to lame pretexts such as claiming that he did not have a good memory of his field research and never kept field notes.<ref name=":45" /> The verdict found Gupta guilty of all charges including data recycling, plagiarism, concocting research locations and conning other scientists.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Talent|first=John|date=1994|title=Vishwa Jit Gupta's Fraudulent Enterprise: Unanticipated Finale talent 1994|url=http://unica2.unica.it/sds/images/SDS%20Newsletter%2011%20red.pdf|journal=I.U.G.S. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Newsletter|volume=11|page=68}}</ref> Panjab University imposed three penalties on Gupta: (1) he was officially reprimanded; (1) he was debarred from administrative positions, his becoming a dean which was due that year was stayed;<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> and (3) his annual increments of salary were ceased.<ref name=":36">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1996-04-01|title=Court allows fossil fraudster to return|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/380570b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=380|issue=6575|pages=570–570|doi=10.1038/380570b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref name=":49" /> In 1993, the UGC had rescinded Gupta's department from the status of the Centre of Advanced Study in Palaeontology and Himalayan Geology.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta's dismissal from the Panjab University was discussed by the Syndicate meeting on 30 June 1994, but no decision was made and the case was deferred to the Senate.<ref name=":14" /> The Senate meeting on 24 September made a majority decision, 50 out of 55, that Gupta was not to be discharged; only five were in favour of a dismissal.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1994-09-01|title=Gupta censured — but keeps his job|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/371368b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=371|issue=6496|pages=368–368|doi=10.1038/371368b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Gupta was however restricted from teaching palaeontology,<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> and was assigned a course in environmental and ground water geology.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was allowed to continue supervising research students.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> Pressured by the academic community and public outcries, the university once again brought back Gupta's expulsion case in 1996. When Gupta knew his case was coming up in a special meeting of the Senate to be held on 17 March, he submitted a letter of resignation for voluntary retirement on 1 March. He requested cancellation of the Senate meeting. However, [[w:Kocheril_Raman_Narayanan|Kocheril Raman Narayanan]], then Vice President of India and Chancellor of the university, pushed on for the Senate meeting to uphold the integrity of the university. Learning of this insistence, Gupta submitted application for reversal of his resignation three days before the meeting and went to the Punjab and Haryana High Court seeking protection from the outcomes of the Senate meeting. The court made a notification to the university not to exercise further retribution on Gupta. Having no other option, the Senate decided to accept the resignation letter upon which Gupta took it to the court as he had already revoked that resignation. Gupta won the court case and continued his academic duties.<ref name=":36" /> Gupta was still defiant of his research and called the whole ordeal a "conspiracy by foreigners."<ref name=":30" /> He wrote seven books on environmental geology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book-author/vishwa%20jit%20gupta/|title=Books authored by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.exoticindiaart.com|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gettextbooks.com/author/Vishwa_Jit_Gupta|title=Books by Vishwa Jit Gupta|website=www.gettextbooks.com|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> Receiving a full pension benefit, he retired (some sources saying a premature superannuation<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref>) in 2002.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite journal|last=Patnaik|first=Pratap R.|date=2016-08-01|title=Scientific Misconduct in India: Causes and Perpetuation|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|journal=Science and Engineering Ethics|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=1245–1249|doi=10.1007/s11948-015-9677-6|issn=1471-5546}}</ref>{{Efn|Sources, even from Talent, indicate the claimed retirement in 2004 may not be reliable, and obviously not an "early" retirement.<ref name=":3"/><ref name=":52" />}} Dhiraj Mohan Banerjee of the Geological Survey of India condemned the university's ineptness on Gupta's continued service and superannuation."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=D.M.|date=2013|title=Himalayan Fossil Fraud- A view from the galleries By S.K. Shah|url=http://palaeontologicalsociety.in/vol58_14/11.pdf|journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India|volume=58|issue=2|page=263}}</ref> Gupta gave death threats to Talent.<ref name=":22" /> Talent sarcastically revealed in an [[w:ABC_News|ABC News]] interview when asked if he was a hero: "Oh, I don't know about a hero. There were no particularly dire consequences, just a few death threats. The people who were hurt most were in India."<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> One day, a Panjab University technical assistant who had been involved in preparing fossil photographs for Gupta announced that he had evidence of the sources of fossil frauds and was planning to reveal them. He was killed in a hit-and-run accident the following night in front of his residence.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> Gupta allegedly offered money to people to physically assault the co-authors of the ''Courier'' paper, Goel and Kumar, according to Talent. A few days later, the mother of one of them [not specified] was the victim of a hit-and-run accident, resulting in both legs and arms and several ribs broken.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|title=What happens to the Whistleblowers?|date=3 September 2005|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050911052826/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s1451250.htm|archive-date=11 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Impact == Once recognised as "India's most celebrated fossil scientist",<ref name=":52" /> Gupta has been called "the greatest" and "most notorious paleontological fraudster"<ref name=":6" /> and "Houdini of the Himalayas."<ref name=":28" /> His forgery was often compared with the case of Piltdown Man, sometimes remarked as the greatest hoax in science.<ref name=":48" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-piltdown-forgery-by-j.-s.-weiner|title=The Piltdown Forgery, by J. S. Weiner|date=2017-02-06|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2024-01-03}}</ref> ''Nature'' announced Talent's observations with a statement that it "will cast a longer shadow" than the Piltdown Man because of its elaborate publications involving numerous discoveries through a quarter of a century, fossils and scientists."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=1989-04-20|title=Himalayan hoax|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/338604a0|journal=Nature|volume=338|issue=6217|pages=604–604|doi=10.1038/338604a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The ''[[w:Chicago_Tribune|Chicago Tribune]]'' conveyed the news as "the most serious case of its kind since the Piltdown hoax."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-04-24-8904060814-story.html|title=Geologist denies allegations of 'Himalayan hoax'|date=1989-04-24|website=Chicago Tribune|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' further explained: "Unlike the case of Piltdown man, in which a single skull was passed off as a fossil of a prehistoric human, this one involves a much broader range of reported finds that have become a part of scientific literature."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Talent described the meaning and consequences of Gupta's research as proving the most contradictory distribution of animals. Given the scale of fossils and the research publications, he described it as "[perhaps] the biggest paleontological fraud of all time."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/23/us/scientist-accused-of-faking-findings.html|title=Scientist Accused of Faking Findings|last=Stevens|first=William K.|date=1989-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1994, ''[[w:Down_to_Earth_(magazine)|Down to Earth]]'' reported it as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/the-fraud-of-the-century-29430|title=The fraud of the century|date=1994-02-15|website=DownToEarth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-28}}</ref> Tony Mayer of the [[w:Nanyang_Technological_University|Nanyang Technological University]] in Singapore stated that the affair "is possibly one of the most extensive instances of malpractice in the whole scientific record."<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgR0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=Vishwa+Jit+gupta&hl=en|title=Geoethics: Ethical Challenges and Case Studies in Earth Sciences|last=Mayer|first=Tony|date=2014-11-13|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800076-2|editor-last=Wyss|editor-first=Max|location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands|pages=74–75|language=en|chapter=Scientific integrity: The bedrock of the geosciences|editor-last2=Peppoloni|editor-first2=Silvia}}</ref> Gupta never faced criminal or ethical charges from the university or government authorities. There was an alleged cover-up of the saga by the government.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/layers-of-dust-years-after-himalayan-fossil-hoax-216961|title=Layers of dust years after 'Himalayan fossil hoax'|last=Bharti|first=Vishav|date=2016-04-03|work=The Tribune|access-date=2023-12-27}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/retractions-fraud-peer-review/|title=Scientific fraud, poor research and honest mistakes lead to thousands of retractions|last=Kenyon|first=Clare|date=2022-10-14|work=Cosmos|access-date=2023-12-27|language=en-US}}</ref> None of Gupta's papers are retracted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://evolutionnews.org/2023/06/fossil-friday-the-gupta-scandal/|title=Recalling the Gupta Scandal|last=Bechly|first=Günter|date=2023-06-09|website=Evolution News|language=en-US|access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> [[w:Pushpa_Mittra_Bhargava|Pushpa Mittra Bhargava]], founder-director of Centre for [[w:Cellular_and_Molecular_Biology|Cellular and Molecular Biology]] in Hyderabad, explained the reason for his resignation from India's largest scientific establishments including Indian National Science Academy, [[w:National_Academy_of_Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], [[w:Indian_Academy_of_Sciences|Indian Academy of Sciences]], and Indian Social Sciences Academy, citing Gupta's case: "Charges of fraudulent claims laid by him [Gupta] on the discovery of Himalayan fossils have been proved, but the only punishment he has been awarded is the stoppage of some of his increments. What is worse is that the person who exposed him is now being harassed and victimised instead of being made a hero."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/interviews/indian-science-is-run-by-a-mafia-26728|title=Indian science is run by a mafia|date=1996-09-30|website=Down to Earth|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> Gujral's inquiry concluded that none of Gupta's co-authors were responsible for the misconduct. Ahluwalia who had openly supported Talent's allegations and blamed Gupta of misconducts in research with which he was linked, lived with trepidation of being ousted from his profession.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/is-himalayan-geology-tainted/|title=Is Himalayan Geology Tainted?|date=1989-09-01|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|date=1993-12-16|title=Palaeontology under a Himalayan shadow|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/366616a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=366|issue=6456|pages=616–616|doi=10.1038/366616a0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> He and three colleagues were threatened by the Panjab University to be punished for conspiracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995|title=Gupta associates feel the reflected heat|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/377003b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=377|issue=6544|pages=3–3|doi=10.1038/377003b0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> He was denied a chance of promotion in 1995<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K. S.|date=1995-11-01|title=Geologist 'victimized' for role in fraud case|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/378227b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=378|issue=6554|pages=227–227|doi=10.1038/378227b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and was rejected from a position of professor even after two personal interviews in 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/rejection-not-justified-says-pu-reader/articleshow/250973.cms|title=Rejection not justified, says PU reader|date=2003-10-26|work=The Times of India|access-date=2024-08-27|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The Geological Society of India's secretary Srikantia made a press statement criticising the Panjab University's decision in 1994 as "a mild censure which amounts to a blatant disregard of ethical values... [and] chosen to ignore all the scientific and legal opinions... [referring to Ahluwalia's case] no one with conscience will come forward to speak the truth and the scientific community will be anaesthetized."<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Srikantia|first=S. V.|date=1996|title=The Himalayan fossil fraud and its aftermath|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24097333|journal=Current Science|volume=70|issue=3|pages=198–198|issn=0011-3891}}</ref> ''Nature'' commented on the failure of Panjab University on the case: "Chandigarh's indulgence of Gupta is a kind of rope trick in that it defies the admittedly unwritten laws that usually apply when people are accused of publishing fraudulent data."<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=1992-02-20|title=Indian rope trick|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/355660b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=355|issue=6362|pages=660–660|doi=10.1038/355660b0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It subsequently reported that the university was "disgracefully lenient" on Gupta.<ref name=":49" /> === Vindhyan fossil controversy === [[File:Rafatazmia chitrakootensis (SRXTM renderings), Statherian (Vindhyan Supergroup) of Central-India.png|thumb|''Rafatazmia chitrakootensis.'' [Bengtson ''et al''., 2017. [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] Gupta's case had lingering effects on Indian palaeontology and the controversy was blamed as the reason "paleontology lost prestige" in India<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/india-s-paleontologists-fight-destruction-its-fossil-riches|title=India's paleontologists fight destruction of its fossil riches|last= Kumar|first=Sanjay|date=2021-03-28|work=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aat7646}}</ref> and that it caused "irreparable damage to Indian science."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Wit|first=Maarten J.|date=1994-03-03|title=Censorship in geology?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/368010c0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=368|issue=6466|pages=10|doi=10.1038/368010c0|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Indian discoveries not only in geology but also in other science disciplines were seen with suspicion. India was perceived as "a leading nation in fraudulent scientific research."<ref name=":35" /> An example of such prejudice was the discovery of one of the oldest multicellular eukaryotes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/science/red-algae-azmi-vindhya|title=1.6 Billion Year Old Algae Rejuvenate Indian Geologist's Once-Bunked Ideas|last=Kher|first=Suvrat|date=2017-03-19|website=The Wire|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> The fossils were discovered from the [[w:Vindhyan_Mountains|Vindhyan Mountains]] in Central India by Rafat Jamal Azmi, of the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology in Dehradun, who reported in the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' in 1998''.''<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> As Azmi announced the discovery in ''Science'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Azmi|first=R. J.|date=1998-10-23|title=Fossil Discoveries in India|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|journal=Science|language=en|volume=282|issue=5389|pages=627|doi=10.1126/science.282.5389.627c|issn=0036-8075|s2cid=129925669}}</ref> it was immediately received with scepticism. When renowned palaeontologists including Nicholas Butterfield, [[w:Simon_Conway_Morris|Simon Conway Morris]] and Soren Jensen (all at the [[w:University_of_Cambridge|University of Cambridge]]) examined the samples, they concluded that they were not fossils at all but artefacts.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-animals-old-again|title=Earliest Animals Old Again?|last1=Kerr|first1=Richard A.|last2=Bagla|first2=Palla|date=1998-11-03|website=Science|doi=10.1126/article.39784|doi-broken-date=2023-12-30|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> At the behest of the Geological Society of India, a team of palaeontologists from the Geological Survey of India, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology and Lucknow University, coordinated by Om Narain Bhargava, conducted an expedition in 1999 to verify the discovery.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=Vindhyan fossil controversy|url=https://www.indianjournalofentrepreneurship.com/index.php/jgsi/article/view/69610|journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India|language=en|volume=55|issue=6|pages=675–680|issn=0974-6889}}</ref> They found no evidence of Azmi's claims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bagla|first=Pallava|date=2000-08-25|title=Team Rejects Claim of Early Indian Fossils|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|journal=Science|language=en|volume=289|issue=5483|pages=1273|doi=10.1126/science.289.5483.1273a|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17772987}}</ref> In 2000, based on the report of the expeditionary team, the ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'' issued a concluding statement declaring "that the identification of fossils by R. J. Azmi is far from convincing and that more detailed work is necessary before the authenticity of the find is accepted."<ref name=":12" /> The dispute became a persisting controversy until it was resolved in 2009 when Stefan Bengtson and his team at the [[w:Swedish_Museum_of_Natural_History|Swedish Museum of Natural History]] in Stockholm published the full analysis of the case in the ''[[w:Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Belivanova|first2=Veneta|last3=Rasmussen|first3=Birger|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2009-05-12|title=The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=19|pages=7729–7734|doi=10.1073/pnas.0812460106|issn=1091-6490|pmc=2683128|pmid=19416859|doi-access=free}}</ref>'' Azmi's discovery became accepted as genuine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dalton|first1=Rex|last2=Jayaraman|first2=Killugudi|date=2009-04-22|title=Indian fossil find resolves fraud accusations|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2009.383|journal=Nature|language=en|doi=10.1038/news.2009.383|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> In a further vindication published in ''[[w:PLoS_Biology|PLoS Biology]]'' in 2017, Bengston's team established that the fossil was that of an alga, which they named ''[[w:Rafatazmia_chitrakootensis|Rafatazmia chitrakootensis]]'' (Figure 4) after the discoverer, and was estimated to be 1.6 billion years old,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtson|first1=Stefan|last2=Sallstedt|first2=Therese|last3=Belivanova|first3=Veneta|last4=Whitehouse|first4=Martin|date=2017|title=Three-dimensional preservation of cellular and subcellular structures suggests 1.6 billion-year-old crown-group red algae|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=e2000735|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2000735|issn=1545-7885|pmc=5349422|pmid=28291791|doi-access=free}}</ref> becoming the oldest known alga.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017|title=Oldest algal fossils found|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/543467d|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7646|pages=467|doi=10.1038/543467d|issn=1476-4687|pmid=28332521|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Policy and popular culture === In 1989, the [[w:US_House_of_Representatives|US House of Representatives]] used the case as one of the evidences of scientific frauds in its first hearing on its policy on "Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NeWKHPBrrpIC&dq=himalaya+fraud+Gupta%C2%A0&pg=PA1113|title=Maintaining the Integrity of Scientific Research: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, First Session, June 28, 1989|last=|date=1990|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=1105–1114|language=en}}</ref> In 1991, a 52-minute documentary of the hoax was presented by [[w:Robyn_Williams|Robyn Williams]] in an [[w:ABC_TV|ABC TV]] programme ''The Professor's New Clothes''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acmi.net.au/works/82277--the-professors-new-clothes/|title=The Professor's new clothes {{!}} Stephen Ramsey {{!}} 1991 {{!}} ACMI collection|website=www.acmi.net.au|language=en|access-date=2023-12-30}}</ref> In 2000, a 24-minute podcast documentary was broadcast on 31 March by [[w:BBC|BBC]] in its programme "Science Friction" with the headline "Tampering with the Fossil Record".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03kc791|title=BBC World Service - Science Friction, Tampering with the Fossil Record|date=2000-03-31|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> In 2021, the University Grants Commission of India used the affair as a case study in its policy titled ''Academic Integrity and Research Quality''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ugc.gov.in/KeyInitiative?ID=ddmCMsxJZgXH2S/m0uMOKQ==|title=Academic Integrity and Research Quality|last=Deka|first=Ramesh Ch.|last2=Deka|first2=Ajanta|publisher=University Grants Commission|year=2021|location=New Delhi (India)|page=97|chapter=Sooner or Later Ethical Violations Get Exposed}}</ref> ==Additional information== === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interests. ===Ethics statement=== Not applicable. === Funding === None. == Footnote == {{Notelist}} == References == <references responsive="1"></references> g3j1tpgwyv5gqbd9y7e78jzplw36su3 0 316633 2819432 2819174 2026-07-26T12:47:58Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina Latreille, 1810 (Larrini) */ 2819432 wikitext text/x-wiki All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> ==South African wasps of Tribe Crabronini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Larrini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Oxybelini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Palarini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> == South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina <small>Latreille, 1810</small> (Larrini)== ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} px0v3v6ttnx2o4l86hnpz16bm1mkaam 2819434 2819432 2026-07-26T12:49:43Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* South African wasps of Tribe Larrini */ 2819434 wikitext text/x-wiki All [[w:Crabronidae|crabronid]] species known in the [[w:Afrotropical realm|Afrotropics]] are of the subfamily Crabroninae. Several species of the subfamily [[w:Dinetinae|Dinetinae]] are found in Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria ([[w:Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]).<ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2024. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm (accessed on 5 February 2025)</ref> ==South African wasps of Tribe Crabronini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dasyproctus iN 27385880 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Dasyproctus|''Dasyproctus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Larrini== See also: [[African Arthropods/South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina|South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps (''[[w:Dicranorhina|Dicranorhina kohli]]'') Liris haemorrhoidalis iN 47526569 04.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Liris |''Liris haemorrhoidalis'']]) Tachysphex specie edit1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' sp.]]) Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Tachytes iN 188902572 1964.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachytes |''Tachytes'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Miscophini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Miscophus kriechbaumeri 2026-03-05.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Miscophus |''Miscophus kriechbaumeri'']]) Paranysson iN 199673489 1.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Paranysson|''Paranysson'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Oxybelini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) Oxybelus iN 250450006 2024-10-09 07.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Oxybelus|''Oxybelus'' sp.]]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Palarini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Palarus_Bee_Pirate_iN_144133368_2022-12-01_01.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Palarus|''Palarus pentheri'']]) </gallery> ==South African wasps of Tribe Trypoxylini== <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Pison iN 144131685 2022-11-30 03.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Pison|''Pison'' sp.]]) Trypoxylon iN 99063113 a.jpg|[[w:Crabronidae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Trypoxylon|''Trypoxylon'' sp.]]) </gallery> == South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina <small>Latreille, 1810</small> (Larrini)== ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 3tsusxz0iy4wl564gquk4gpkpfxxwsj 0 323153 2819443 2819104 2026-07-26T14:12:59Z U3183521 2947387 /* Motivation */ Assigned topic 2819443 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Expectancy–value theory of educational motivation/]] - What is expectancy–value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] – What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] – How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] – When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] – How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] – What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] – What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] – How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] – How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|Username}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|Username}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] – How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] – How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] – How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] ifd4ihjzzuxpf5b0zle0inodqeeccgw 0 325872 2819478 2819111 2026-07-27T07:56:13Z Jtneill 10242 2819478 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <!-- __NOEDITSECTION__ --> <!-- Title - Box --> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <div style="text-align: center;"> <!-- Title --> {{title|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|<big><big>Motivation and emotion</big></big>]]:}} <!-- Sub-title and year --> <div style="color: purple; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;"> Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science (2026) </div> <!-- Initial development --> {{notice|<!-- Aiming for approximately ~150 topics - more coming.<br> -->These chapters<!-- will be--> are being developed developed by ~150 [[motivation and emotion]] [[emerging scholar]]s from August to October, 2026.}} <!-- Training resources --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;Training resources [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] {{center bottom}} |- |} </div> <!-- Initial message --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;How to select a topic {{center bottom}} <!-- Pre-approved topics are listed below.<br> --> # [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Creating an account|Create an account and login]] # Look through available topics without a current author # Click "Edit" or "Edit source" # Replace "User Name" for the topic of choice with your Wikiversity user name # Publish the page # Check that your user name appears correctly; if not, fix or [[Motivation and emotion/Help|get in touch]] # Alternatively, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiate a new topic]] |- |} <!-- Drafting message --> <!-- These pages are undergoing a massive transformation.<br>~150 [[emerging scholar]]s who are studying [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]] are each authoring a resource about how psychological science can be used to understand and improve our lives.<br>Feel free to comment or contribute. --> <!-- Marking message --> <!--Most of the ~150 chapters have been submitted and are now undergoing expert review.<br>Feel free to continue improving and commenting.--> {{RoundBoxBottom}}<!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Book/Quality3}} --><noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> oamx8hw9q3i5sh7par85na7lm8d96h1 2819479 2819478 2026-07-27T07:57:01Z Jtneill 10242 + University of Canberra 2819479 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <!-- __NOEDITSECTION__ --> <!-- Title - Box --> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <div style="text-align: center;"> <!-- Title --> {{title|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|<big><big>Motivation and emotion</big></big>]]:}} <!-- Sub-title and year --> <div style="color: purple; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;"> Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science (2026) </div> <!-- Initial development --> {{notice|<!-- Aiming for approximately ~150 topics - more coming.<br> -->These chapters<!-- will be--> are being developed developed by ~150 [[motivation and emotion]] [[emerging scholar]]s from the [[w:University of Canberra|University of Canberra]], August to October, 2026.}} <!-- Training resources --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;Training resources [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] {{center bottom}} |- |} </div> <!-- Initial message --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;How to select a topic {{center bottom}} <!-- Pre-approved topics are listed below.<br> --> # [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Creating an account|Create an account and login]] # Look through available topics without a current author # Click "Edit" or "Edit source" # Replace "User Name" for the topic of choice with your Wikiversity user name # Publish the page # Check that your user name appears correctly; if not, fix or [[Motivation and emotion/Help|get in touch]] # Alternatively, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiate a new topic]] |- |} <!-- Drafting message --> <!-- These pages are undergoing a massive transformation.<br>~150 [[emerging scholar]]s who are studying [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]] are each authoring a resource about how psychological science can be used to understand and improve our lives.<br>Feel free to comment or contribute. --> <!-- Marking message --> <!--Most of the ~150 chapters have been submitted and are now undergoing expert review.<br>Feel free to continue improving and commenting.--> {{RoundBoxBottom}}<!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Book/Quality3}} --><noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> 3nhbre94kni2hx1rsf4sh5j6t4nzowv 2819480 2819479 2026-07-27T07:59:30Z Jtneill 10242 2819480 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <!-- __NOEDITSECTION__ --> <!-- Title - Box --> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <div style="text-align: center;"> <!-- Title --> {{title|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|<big><big>Motivation and emotion</big></big>]]:}} <!-- Sub-title and year --> <div style="color: purple; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;"> Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science (2026) </div> <!-- Initial development --> {{notice|<!-- Aiming for approximately ~150 topics - more coming.<br> -->These chapters<!-- will be--> are being developed by ~150 [[motivation and emotion]] [[emerging scholar]]s from the [[w:University of Canberra|University of Canberra]], August to October, 2026.<!-- Editor: [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]].-->}} <!-- Training resources --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;Training resources [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] {{center bottom}} |- |} </div> <!-- Initial message --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;How to select a topic {{center bottom}} <!-- Pre-approved topics are listed below.<br> --> # [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Creating an account|Create an account and login]] # Look through available topics without a current author # Click "Edit" or "Edit source" # Replace "User Name" for the topic of choice with your Wikiversity user name # Publish the page # Check that your user name appears correctly; if not, fix or [[Motivation and emotion/Help|get in touch]] # Alternatively, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiate a new topic]] |- |} <!-- Drafting message --> <!-- These pages are undergoing a massive transformation.<br>~150 [[emerging scholar]]s who are studying [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]] are each authoring a resource about how psychological science can be used to understand and improve our lives.<br>Feel free to comment or contribute. --> <!-- Marking message --> <!--Most of the ~150 chapters have been submitted and are now undergoing expert review.<br>Feel free to continue improving and commenting.--> {{RoundBoxBottom}}<!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Book/Quality3}} --><noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> ea8u8ea7329ia09j8wdv62ostez36qf 2819481 2819480 2026-07-27T08:00:43Z Jtneill 10242 2819481 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <!-- __NOEDITSECTION__ --> <!-- Title - Box --> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <div style="text-align: center;"> <!-- Title --> {{title|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|<big><big>Motivation and emotion</big></big>]]:}} <!-- Sub-title and year --> <div style="color: purple; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;"> Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science (2026) </div> <!-- Initial development --> {{notice|<!-- Aiming for approximately ~150 topics - more coming.<br> -->These chapters<!-- will be--> are being developed by ~150 [[emerging scholar]]s from the [[w:University of Canberra|University of Canberra]], August to October, 2026, as part of their enrolment in [[motivation and emotion]].<!-- Editor: [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]].-->}} <!-- Training resources --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;Training resources [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] {{center bottom}} |- |} </div> <!-- Initial message --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;How to select a topic {{center bottom}} <!-- Pre-approved topics are listed below.<br> --> # [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Creating an account|Create an account and login]] # Look through available topics without a current author # Click "Edit" or "Edit source" # Replace "User Name" for the topic of choice with your Wikiversity user name # Publish the page # Check that your user name appears correctly; if not, fix or [[Motivation and emotion/Help|get in touch]] # Alternatively, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiate a new topic]] |- |} <!-- Drafting message --> <!-- These pages are undergoing a massive transformation.<br>~150 [[emerging scholar]]s who are studying [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]] are each authoring a resource about how psychological science can be used to understand and improve our lives.<br>Feel free to comment or contribute. --> <!-- Marking message --> <!--Most of the ~150 chapters have been submitted and are now undergoing expert review.<br>Feel free to continue improving and commenting.--> {{RoundBoxBottom}}<!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Book/Quality3}} --><noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> l2gpztckl1rl8mdqmqfi5rnl0yi7ro1 2819482 2819481 2026-07-27T08:02:17Z Jtneill 10242 2819482 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <!-- __NOEDITSECTION__ --> <!-- Title - Box --> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <div style="text-align: center;"> <!-- Title --> {{title|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|<big><big>Motivation and emotion</big></big>]]:}} <!-- Sub-title and year --> <div style="color: purple; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;"> Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science (2026) </div> <!-- Initial development --> {{notice|<!-- Aiming for approximately ~150 topics - more coming.<br> -->These chapters<!-- will be--> are being developed by ~150 [[emerging scholar]]s from the [[w:University of Canberra|University of Canberra]], August to October, 2026, as part of their enrolment in [[motivation and emotion]].<!-- Editor: [[User:Jtneill|James Neill]].-->}} <!-- Training resources --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;Training resources [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] {{center bottom}} |- |} </div> <!-- Initial message --> {| style="border:2px solid #616F7C;background-color:WhiteSmoke;padding:2px;width:80%;margin: 0 auto 1em auto;" |- |{{center top}} ;How to select a topic {{center bottom}} <!-- Pre-approved topics are listed below.<br> --> # [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Creating an account|Create an account and login]] # Look through available topics without a current author (indicated by "User Name") # Click "Edit" or "Edit source" # Replace "User Name" alongside the topic of choice with your Wikiversity user name # Publish the page # Check that your user name appears correctly; if not, fix it or [[Motivation and emotion/Help|get in touch]] # Alternatively, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection#New topics|negotiate a new topic]] |- |} <!-- Drafting message --> <!-- These pages are undergoing a massive transformation.<br>~150 [[emerging scholar]]s who are studying [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]] are each authoring a resource about how psychological science can be used to understand and improve our lives.<br>Feel free to comment or contribute. --> <!-- Marking message --> <!--Most of the ~150 chapters have been submitted and are now undergoing expert review.<br>Feel free to continue improving and commenting.--> {{RoundBoxBottom}}<!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Book/Quality3}} --><noinclude>[[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> fzu5rifvlmnp2sm5xwuy51jtht3he92 0 326045 2819451 2819073 2026-07-26T16:23:17Z TMorata 860721 added attribution 2819451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque. [1] Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system. [2][3] {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS). [4][5][6] In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century[4] . A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology. [7] [8] . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence. [2][3] Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups. [9] Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes. [2] The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets. [2] {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options. [16][5] Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research. [7][8] Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries [14] {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss. [4][5] The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS [6]) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system. [10][7] '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care. [1][4] The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology. [11] '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss. [12][13] '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways [3]. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers [14]. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. [1] Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement. [7] {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession. [14] Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association). [2] Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological. [4][5] It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems. [10][14] {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing [17,18]. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field [17,18]. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact [19,20]. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation [21], as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally [22,23]. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant [24]. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage. [15] Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need. [2][3] Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases. [10][14] However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers. [2][11] {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies. [15]{{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> [1] Wikipedia. (2024). Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud). [2] EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists. (2023). EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey. HearingYou.org Research Library. Link [3] HearingYou.org. (2023). 10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey. Link [4] Audiology Worldnews. (n.d.). Audiology in Spain. Link [5] European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA). (n.d.). Audiology in Spain. Link [6] European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS). (2001) Audiology in Europe. [7] Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC). (2024). The Bachelor&#39;s Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain. Link [8] Universidad de Salamanca (2024). Grado en Audiologia General Link [9] Valiente, A. R., et al. (2015). Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain. International Journal of Audiology, 54(8), 499–506. Link [10] AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología). (2023). Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España. Auditio, 7. Link [11] Market Research Future (MRFR). (2024). Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035. Link [12] Clínica Universidad de Navarra. (2024). Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program. Link [13] Clínica Universidad de Navarra. (2024). Department of Otolaryngology. Link [14] Benítez-Barrera, C. R., &amp; de Diego-Lázaro, B. (2021). Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general. Auditio, 5(3), e78-e78. [15] European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH). (2022). State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report. Link [16] Educations.com. (2025). Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain. Link [17] Saldaña, E., de Castro, F., López, D. E., &amp; Malmierca, M. S. (2025). Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain. Hearing research, 464, 109323. [18] Benítez-Barrera, C. (2025). Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research. Auditio, 9, e119- e119. [19] Lopez-Poveda, E. A. (2014). Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 348. [20] Lopez-Poveda, E. A., &amp; Marrufo-Pérez, M. I. (2025). ¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear. Auditio, 9, e120-e120. [21] Manrique-Huarte, R., Calavia, D., Huarte Irujo, A., Girón, L., &amp; Manrique- Rodríguez, M. (2016). Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life. Audiology and Neurotology, 21(Suppl. 1), 29-35. [22] Barajas de Prat, J., Zenker Castro, F., &amp; Fernández Belda, R. (2007). Potenciales evocados auditivos. In C. Suárez &amp; L. M. Gil-Carcedo (Eds.), Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello (Vol. 6, pp. 1133–1155). Editorial Médica Panamericana. [23] Barajas del Prat, J. J., &amp; Zenker, F. (2002). Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review. Auditio, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010 [24] Ramos de Miguel, Á., Falcon Gonzalez, J. C., &amp; Ramos Macias, A. (2017). Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations. Journal of International Advanced Otology, 13, 154-161 {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] kdl26hv1oauuy3qdk8gwvjewh6rpslj 2819452 2819451 2026-07-26T16:25:09Z TMorata 860721 corrected entry 2819452 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque. [1] Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system. [2][3] {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS). [4][5][6] In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century[4] . A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology. [7] [8] . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence. [2][3] Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups. [9] Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes. [2] The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets. [2] {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options. [16][5] Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research. [7][8] Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries [14] {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss. [4][5] The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS [6]) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system. [10][7] '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care. [1][4] The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology. [11] '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss. [12][13] '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways [3]. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers [14]. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. [1] Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement. [7] {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession. [14] Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association). [2] Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological. [4][5] It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems. [10][14] {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing [17,18]. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field [17,18]. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact [19,20]. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation [21], as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally [22,23]. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant [24]. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage. [15] Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need. [2][3] Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases. [10][14] However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers. [2][11] {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies. [15]{{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> [1] Wikipedia. (2024). Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud). [2] EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists. (2023). EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey. HearingYou.org Research Library. Link [3] HearingYou.org. (2023). 10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey. Link [4] Audiology Worldnews. (n.d.). Audiology in Spain. Link [5] European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA). (n.d.). Audiology in Spain. Link [6] European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS). (2001) Audiology in Europe. [7] Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC). (2024). The Bachelor&#39;s Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain. Link [8] Universidad de Salamanca (2024). Grado en Audiologia General Link [9] Valiente, A. R., et al. (2015). Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain. International Journal of Audiology, 54(8), 499–506. Link [10] AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología). (2023). Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España. Auditio, 7. Link [11] Market Research Future (MRFR). (2024). Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035. Link [12] Clínica Universidad de Navarra. (2024). Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program. Link [13] Clínica Universidad de Navarra. (2024). Department of Otolaryngology. Link [14] Benítez-Barrera, C. R., &amp; de Diego-Lázaro, B. (2021). Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general. Auditio, 5(3), e78-e78. [15] European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH). (2022). State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report. Link [16] Educations.com. (2025). Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain. Link [17] Saldaña, E., de Castro, F., López, D. E., &amp; Malmierca, M. S. (2025). Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain. Hearing research, 464, 109323. [18] Benítez-Barrera, C. (2025). Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research. Auditio, 9, e119- e119. [19] Lopez-Poveda, E. A. (2014). Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 348. [20] Lopez-Poveda, E. A., &amp; Marrufo-Pérez, M. I. (2025). ¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear. Auditio, 9, e120-e120. [21] Manrique-Huarte, R., Calavia, D., Huarte Irujo, A., Girón, L., &amp; Manrique- Rodríguez, M. (2016). Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life. Audiology and Neurotology, 21(Suppl. 1), 29-35. [22] Barajas de Prat, J., Zenker Castro, F., &amp; Fernández Belda, R. (2007). Potenciales evocados auditivos. In C. Suárez &amp; L. M. Gil-Carcedo (Eds.), Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello (Vol. 6, pp. 1133–1155). Editorial Médica Panamericana. [23] Barajas del Prat, J. J., &amp; Zenker, F. (2002). Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review. Auditio, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010 [24] Ramos de Miguel, Á., Falcon Gonzalez, J. C., &amp; Ramos Macias, A. (2017). Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations. Journal of International Advanced Otology, 13, 154-161 {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] 2mvj87ye358rikfn73q2qpq6kixq83g 2819457 2819452 2026-07-27T02:52:58Z Sajanaaryal 3025207 added ref 2819457 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque. <ref name="Wikipedia2024">{{Cite web|author=Wikipedia|date=2024|title=Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud)}}</ref> Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system.<ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023">{{Cite web|author=EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists|date=2023|title=EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey|website=HearingYou.org Research Library}}</ref><ref name="HearingYou2023">{{Cite web|author=HearingYou.org|date=2023|title=10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey|website=HearingYou.org}}</ref> {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS).<ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain">{{Cite web|author=Audiology Worldnews|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain">{{Cite web|author=European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA)|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EFAS2001">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS)|date=2001|title=Audiology in Europe}}</ref> In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" />. A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology <ref name="UVicUCC2024">{{Cite web|author=Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC)|date=2024|title=The Bachelor's Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain}}</ref> <ref name="Salamanca2024">{{Cite web|author=Universidad de Salamanca|date=2024|title=Grado en Audiologia General}}</ref> . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups <ref name="Valiente2015">{{Cite journal|last=Valiente|first=A. R.|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain|journal=International Journal of Audiology|volume=54|issue=8|pages=499–506}}</ref>. Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" />. The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" />. {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options <ref name="Educations2025">{{Cite web|author=Educations.com|date=2025|title=Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain" />. Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /><ref name="Salamanca2024" />. Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C. R.|last2=de Diego-Lázaro|first2=B.|date=2021|title=Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general|journal=Auditio|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e78-e78}}</ref>. {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" />. The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS <ref name="EFAS2001" />) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system <ref name="AEDA2023">{{Cite journal|author=AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología)|date=2023|title=Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España|journal=Auditio|volume=7}}</ref><ref name="UVicUCC2024" />. '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /><ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" />. The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology <ref name="MRFR2024">{{Cite web|author=Market Research Future (MRFR)|date=2024|title=Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035}}</ref> '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss <ref name="CUNImplant2024">{{Cite web|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program}}</ref><ref name="CUNOtolaryngology2024">{{Cite web|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology}}</ref>. '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways <ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation <ref name="Wikipedia2024" />. Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement <ref name="UVicUCC2024" />. {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association) <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> . Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" />. It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing <ref name="Saldana2025">{{Cite journal|last=Saldaña|first=E.|last2=de Castro|first2=F.|last3=López|first3=D. E.|last4=Malmierca|first4=M. S.|date=2025|title=Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain|journal=Hearing Research|volume=464|pages=109323}}</ref><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C.|date=2025|title=Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e119-e119}}</ref>. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field <ref name="Saldana2025" /><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025" />. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact <ref name="LopezPoveda2014">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|date=2014|title=Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=348}}</ref><ref name="LopezPovedaMarrufoPerez2025">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|last2=Marrufo-Pérez|first2=M. I.|date=2025|title=¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e120-e120}}</ref>. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation ref name="ManriqueHuarte2016">{{Cite journal|last=Manrique-Huarte|first=R.|last2=Calavia|first2=D.|last3=Huarte Irujo|first3=A.|last4=Girón|first4=L.|last5=Manrique-Rodríguez|first5=M.|date=2016|title=Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life|journal=Audiology and Neurotology|volume=21|issue=Suppl. 1|pages=29–35}}</ref>, as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally <ref name="BarajasPrat2007">{{Cite book|last=Barajas de Prat|first=J.|last2=Zenker Castro|first2=F.|last3=Fernández Belda|first3=R.|date=2007|chapter=Potenciales evocados auditivos|editor-last=Suárez|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Gil-Carcedo|editor-first2=L. M.|title=Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello|volume=6|pages=1133–1155|publisher=Editorial Médica Panamericana}}</ref><ref name="BarajasZenker2002">{{Cite journal|last=Barajas del Prat|first=J. J.|last2=Zenker|first2=F.|date=2002|title=Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review|journal=Auditio|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010}}</ref>. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant <ref name="RamosMiguel2017">{{Cite journal|last=Ramos de Miguel|first=Á.|last2=Falcon Gonzalez|first2=J. C.|last3=Ramos Macias|first3=A.|date=2017|title=Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations|journal=Journal of International Advanced Otology|volume=13|pages=154–161}}</ref>. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage <ref name="EFHOH2022">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH)|date=2022|title=State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report}}</ref>. Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="MRFR2024" />. {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies <ref name="EFHOH2022" />. {{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] nlmr7b7h7tbbzrsqv7kizwj0b7fwfpe 2819458 2819457 2026-07-27T02:57:58Z Sajanaaryal 3025207 added ref 2819458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque <ref name="Wikipedia2024">{{Cite web|author=Wikipedia|date=2024|title=Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud)}}</ref>. Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system.<ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023">{{Cite web|author=EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists|date=2023|title=EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey|website=HearingYou.org Research Library}}</ref><ref name="HearingYou2023">{{Cite web|author=HearingYou.org|date=2023|title=10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey|website=HearingYou.org}}</ref>. {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS) <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain">{{Cite web|author=Audiology Worldnews|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain">{{Cite web|author=European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA)|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EFAS2001">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS)|date=2001|title=Audiology in Europe}}</ref>. In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" />. A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology <ref name="UVicUCC2024">{{Cite web|author=Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC)|date=2024|title=The Bachelor's Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain}}</ref> <ref name="Salamanca2024">{{Cite web|author=Universidad de Salamanca|date=2024|title=Grado en Audiologia General}}</ref> . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups <ref name="Valiente2015">{{Cite journal|last=Valiente|first=A. R.|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain|journal=International Journal of Audiology|volume=54|issue=8|pages=499–506}}</ref>. Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" />. The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" />. {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options <ref name="Educations2025">{{Cite web|author=Educations.com|date=2025|title=Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain" />. Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /><ref name="Salamanca2024" />. Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C. R.|last2=de Diego-Lázaro|first2=B.|date=2021|title=Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general|journal=Auditio|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e78-e78}}</ref>. {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" />. The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS <ref name="EFAS2001" />) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system <ref name="AEDA2023">{{Cite journal|author=AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología)|date=2023|title=Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España|journal=Auditio|volume=7}}</ref><ref name="UVicUCC2024" />. '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /><ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" />. The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology <ref name="MRFR2024">{{Cite web|author=Market Research Future (MRFR)|date=2024|title=Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035}}</ref> '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss <ref name="CUNImplant2024">{{Cite web|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program}}</ref><ref name="CUNOtolaryngology2024">{{Cite web|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology}}</ref>. '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways <ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation <ref name="Wikipedia2024" />. Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement <ref name="UVicUCC2024" />. {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association) <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> . Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" />. It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing <ref name="Saldana2025">{{Cite journal|last=Saldaña|first=E.|last2=de Castro|first2=F.|last3=López|first3=D. E.|last4=Malmierca|first4=M. S.|date=2025|title=Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain|journal=Hearing Research|volume=464|pages=109323}}</ref><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C.|date=2025|title=Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e119-e119}}</ref>. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field <ref name="Saldana2025" /><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025" />. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact <ref name="LopezPoveda2014">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|date=2014|title=Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=348}}</ref><ref name="LopezPovedaMarrufoPerez2025">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|last2=Marrufo-Pérez|first2=M. I.|date=2025|title=¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e120-e120}}</ref>. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation ref name="ManriqueHuarte2016">{{Cite journal|last=Manrique-Huarte|first=R.|last2=Calavia|first2=D.|last3=Huarte Irujo|first3=A.|last4=Girón|first4=L.|last5=Manrique-Rodríguez|first5=M.|date=2016|title=Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life|journal=Audiology and Neurotology|volume=21|issue=Suppl. 1|pages=29–35}}</ref>, as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally <ref name="BarajasPrat2007">{{Cite book|last=Barajas de Prat|first=J.|last2=Zenker Castro|first2=F.|last3=Fernández Belda|first3=R.|date=2007|chapter=Potenciales evocados auditivos|editor-last=Suárez|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Gil-Carcedo|editor-first2=L. M.|title=Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello|volume=6|pages=1133–1155|publisher=Editorial Médica Panamericana}}</ref><ref name="BarajasZenker2002">{{Cite journal|last=Barajas del Prat|first=J. J.|last2=Zenker|first2=F.|date=2002|title=Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review|journal=Auditio|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010}}</ref>. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant <ref name="RamosMiguel2017">{{Cite journal|last=Ramos de Miguel|first=Á.|last2=Falcon Gonzalez|first2=J. C.|last3=Ramos Macias|first3=A.|date=2017|title=Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations|journal=Journal of International Advanced Otology|volume=13|pages=154–161}}</ref>. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage <ref name="EFHOH2022">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH)|date=2022|title=State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report}}</ref>. Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="MRFR2024" />. {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies <ref name="EFHOH2022" />. {{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} ''Edited by'' Nausheen Dawood and [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sajana-aryal-209612187/ Sajana Aryal] [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] 1fgt1g0sl786f07xwqf877t5rj83fcy 2819459 2819458 2026-07-27T03:04:07Z Sajanaaryal 3025207 added ref 2819459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque. <ref name="Wikipedia2024">{{Citation|author=Wikipedia|date=2024|title=Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud)}}</ref> Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023">{{Citation|author=EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists|date=2023|title=EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey|website=HearingYou.org Research Library}}</ref><ref name="HearingYou2023">{{Citation|author=HearingYou.org|date=2023|title=10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey|website=HearingYou.org}}</ref> {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS). <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain">{{Citation|author=Audiology Worldnews|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain">{{Citation|author=European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA)|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EFAS2001">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS)|date=2001|title=Audiology in Europe}}</ref> In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century<ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /> . A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology. <ref name="UVicUCC2024">{{Citation|author=Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC)|date=2024|title=The Bachelor's Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain}}</ref> <ref name="Salamanca2024">{{Citation|author=Universidad de Salamanca|date=2024|title=Grado en Audiologia General}}</ref> . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" /> Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups. <ref name="Valiente2015">{{Cite journal|last=Valiente|first=A. R.|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain|journal=International Journal of Audiology|volume=54|issue=8|pages=499–506}}</ref> Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options. <ref name="Educations2025">{{Citation|author=Educations.com|date=2025|title=Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain" /> Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research. <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /><ref name="Salamanca2024" /> Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C. R.|last2=de Diego-Lázaro|first2=B.|date=2021|title=Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general|journal=Auditio|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e78-e78}}</ref> {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss. <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" /> The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS <ref name="EFAS2001" />) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system. <ref name="AEDA2023">{{Cite journal|author=AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología)|date=2023|title=Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España|journal=Auditio|volume=7}}</ref><ref name="UVicUCC2024" /> '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care. <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /><ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /> The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology. <ref name="MRFR2024">{{Citation|author=Market Research Future (MRFR)|date=2024|title=Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035}}</ref> '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss. <ref name="CUNImplant2024">{{Citation|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program}}</ref><ref name="CUNOtolaryngology2024">{{Citation|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology}}</ref> '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways <ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /> Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement. <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /> {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession. <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association). <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological. <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" /> It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems. <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing <ref name="Saldana2025">{{Cite journal|last=Saldaña|first=E.|last2=de Castro|first2=F.|last3=López|first3=D. E.|last4=Malmierca|first4=M. S.|date=2025|title=Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain|journal=Hearing Research|volume=464|pages=109323}}</ref><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C.|date=2025|title=Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e119-e119}}</ref>. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field <ref name="Saldana2025" /><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025" />. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact <ref name="LopezPoveda2014">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|date=2014|title=Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=348}}</ref><ref name="LopezPovedaMarrufoPerez2025">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|last2=Marrufo-Pérez|first2=M. I.|date=2025|title=¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e120-e120}}</ref>. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation <ref name="ManriqueHuarte2016">{{Cite journal|last=Manrique-Huarte|first=R.|last2=Calavia|first2=D.|last3=Huarte Irujo|first3=A.|last4=Girón|first4=L.|last5=Manrique-Rodríguez|first5=M.|date=2016|title=Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life|journal=Audiology and Neurotology|volume=21|issue=Suppl. 1|pages=29–35}}</ref>, as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally <ref name="BarajasPrat2007">{{Cite book|last=Barajas de Prat|first=J.|last2=Zenker Castro|first2=F.|last3=Fernández Belda|first3=R.|date=2007|chapter=Potenciales evocados auditivos|editor-last=Suárez|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Gil-Carcedo|editor-first2=L. M.|title=Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello|volume=6|pages=1133–1155|publisher=Editorial Médica Panamericana}}</ref><ref name="BarajasZenker2002">{{Cite journal|last=Barajas del Prat|first=J. J.|last2=Zenker|first2=F.|date=2002|title=Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review|journal=Auditio|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010}}</ref>. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant <ref name="RamosMiguel2017">{{Cite journal|last=Ramos de Miguel|first=Á.|last2=Falcon Gonzalez|first2=J. C.|last3=Ramos Macias|first3=A.|date=2017|title=Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations|journal=Journal of International Advanced Otology|volume=13|pages=154–161}}</ref>. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage. <ref name="EFHOH2022">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH)|date=2022|title=State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report}}</ref> Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" /> Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases. <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="MRFR2024" /> {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies. <ref name="EFHOH2022" />{{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} ''Edited by'' Nausheen Dawood and [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sajana-aryal-209612187/ Sajana Aryal] [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] 1dumc7sz89hg0fjq93hlohb0u0hvtv3 2819460 2819459 2026-07-27T03:06:33Z Sajanaaryal 3025207 added ref 2819460 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque. <ref name="Wikipedia2024">{{Citation|author=Wikipedia|date=2024|title=Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud)}}</ref> Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023">{{Citation|author=EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists|date=2023|title=EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey|publisher=HearingYou.org Research Library}}</ref><ref name="HearingYou2023">{{Citation|author=HearingYou.org|date=2023|title=10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey|publisher=HearingYou.org}}</ref> {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS). <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain">{{Citation|author=Audiology Worldnews|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain">{{Citation|author=European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA)|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EFAS2001">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS)|date=2001|title=Audiology in Europe}}</ref> In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century<ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /> . A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology. <ref name="UVicUCC2024">{{Citation|author=Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC)|date=2024|title=The Bachelor's Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain}}</ref> <ref name="Salamanca2024">{{Citation|author=Universidad de Salamanca|date=2024|title=Grado en Audiologia General}}</ref> . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" /> Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups. <ref name="Valiente2015">{{Cite journal|last=Valiente|first=A. R.|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain|journal=International Journal of Audiology|volume=54|issue=8|pages=499–506}}</ref> Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options. <ref name="Educations2025">{{Citation|author=Educations.com|date=2025|title=Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain" /> Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research. <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /><ref name="Salamanca2024" /> Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C. R.|last2=de Diego-Lázaro|first2=B.|date=2021|title=Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general|journal=Auditio|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e78-e78}}</ref> {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss. <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" /> The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS <ref name="EFAS2001" />) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system. <ref name="AEDA2023">{{Cite journal|author=AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología)|date=2023|title=Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España|journal=Auditio|volume=7}}</ref><ref name="UVicUCC2024" /> '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care. <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /><ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /> The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology. <ref name="MRFR2024">{{Citation|author=Market Research Future (MRFR)|date=2024|title=Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035}}</ref> '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss. <ref name="CUNImplant2024">{{Citation|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program}}</ref><ref name="CUNOtolaryngology2024">{{Citation|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology}}</ref> '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways <ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /> Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement. <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /> {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession. <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association). <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological. <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" /> It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems. <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing <ref name="Saldana2025">{{Cite journal|last=Saldaña|first=E.|last2=de Castro|first2=F.|last3=López|first3=D. E.|last4=Malmierca|first4=M. S.|date=2025|title=Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain|journal=Hearing Research|volume=464|pages=109323}}</ref><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C.|date=2025|title=Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e119-e119}}</ref>. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field <ref name="Saldana2025" /><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025" />. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact <ref name="LopezPoveda2014">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|date=2014|title=Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=348}}</ref><ref name="LopezPovedaMarrufoPerez2025">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|last2=Marrufo-Pérez|first2=M. I.|date=2025|title=¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e120-e120}}</ref>. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation <ref name="ManriqueHuarte2016">{{Cite journal|last=Manrique-Huarte|first=R.|last2=Calavia|first2=D.|last3=Huarte Irujo|first3=A.|last4=Girón|first4=L.|last5=Manrique-Rodríguez|first5=M.|date=2016|title=Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life|journal=Audiology and Neurotology|volume=21|issue=Suppl. 1|pages=29–35}}</ref>, as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally <ref name="BarajasPrat2007">{{Cite book|last=Barajas de Prat|first=J.|last2=Zenker Castro|first2=F.|last3=Fernández Belda|first3=R.|date=2007|chapter=Potenciales evocados auditivos|editor-last=Suárez|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Gil-Carcedo|editor-first2=L. M.|title=Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello|volume=6|pages=1133–1155|publisher=Editorial Médica Panamericana}}</ref><ref name="BarajasZenker2002">{{Cite journal|last=Barajas del Prat|first=J. J.|last2=Zenker|first2=F.|date=2002|title=Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review|journal=Auditio|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010}}</ref>. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant <ref name="RamosMiguel2017">{{Cite journal|last=Ramos de Miguel|first=Á.|last2=Falcon Gonzalez|first2=J. C.|last3=Ramos Macias|first3=A.|date=2017|title=Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations|journal=Journal of International Advanced Otology|volume=13|pages=154–161}}</ref>. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage. <ref name="EFHOH2022">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH)|date=2022|title=State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report}}</ref> Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" /> Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases. <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="MRFR2024" /> {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies.<ref name="EFHOH2022" />{{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} ''Edited by'' Nausheen Dawood and [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sajana-aryal-209612187/ Sajana Aryal] [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] lq86ym0rfx2jp6se0y22bhcde9na520 2819461 2819460 2026-07-27T03:10:13Z Sajanaaryal 3025207 added ref 2819461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Global Audiology/Header}} {{:Global Audiology/Europe/Header}} {{CountryHeader|File:Spain (orthographic projection).svg|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain}} {{HTitle|General Information}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spain],(officially the Kingdom of Spain) is a sovereign state and member of the European Union, located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. With a population of approximately 47 million, it is the fourth most populous country in the EU. Spain is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy divided into 17 autonomous communities, each with significant responsibility for public services including health. The national language is Spanish (Castilian), with several co-official regional languages including Catalan, Galician, and Basque. <ref name="Wikipedia2024">{{Citation|author=Wikipedia|date=2024|title=Spanish National Health System (Sistema Nacional de Salud)}}</ref> Spain has one of the largest ageing populations in Europe, with more than 20% of citizens aged 65 or over, a demographic factor that significantly increases the burden of age-related hearing loss on the healthcare system. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023">{{Citation|author=EHIMA / Spanish Association of Audiologists|date=2023|title=EuroTrak Spain 2023 Survey|publisher=HearingYou.org Research Library}}</ref><ref name="HearingYou2023">{{Citation|author=HearingYou.org|date=2023|title=10% of people in Spain have hearing loss according to latest EuroTrak survey|publisher=HearingYou.org}}</ref> {{HTitle|History of Audiology}} Audiology in Spain has a long clinical history, though the formal recognition of audiology as a standalone university-level health profession has been slow compared with many other European and non-European nations. For decades, hearing care in Spain has been provided primarily by otorhinolaryngologists (ENT specialists), hearing aid technicians (audioprotesistas), and speech-language pathologists (logopedas), without a unified, independently licensed general audiologist profession as currently defined by the European Federation of Audiology (EFAS). <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain">{{Citation|author=Audiology Worldnews|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain">{{Citation|author=European Union of Hearing Aid Acousticians (EUHA)|date=n.d.|title=Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EFAS2001">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Audiology Societies (EFAS)|date=2001|title=Audiology in Europe}}</ref> In 2001, the Spanish government formally regulated the qualification of Technicians in Hearing Aid Dispensing (Técnico Superior en Audioprótesis), establishing it as the mandatory credential for hearing aid fitting and dispensing. Since then, hearing aid services have been provided primarily by professionals trained through this vocational education program rather than university-level programs. Thus, audiology as a comprehensive, independent clinical discipline—including diagnostic audiology, vestibular assessment, tinnitus management, and pediatric audiology—remains structurally underrepresented in Spanish higher education well into the 21st century<ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /> . A landmark development came in 2023 and 2024, when the Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC) and the University of Salamanca, respectively, launched Spain&#39;s first bachelor&#39;s degree programs in General Audiology. <ref name="UVicUCC2024">{{Citation|author=Universitat de Vic – Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC)|date=2024|title=The Bachelor's Degree in General Audiology at the UVic-UCC Faculty of Medicine Becomes the First Audiology Degree in Spain}}</ref> <ref name="Salamanca2024">{{Citation|author=Universidad de Salamanca|date=2024|title=Grado en Audiologia General}}</ref> . These programs represent a transformative milestone in the development of audiology education in Spain. Nevertheless, despite these important advances, the profession of general audiologist has not yet been formally recognized as an independent regulated health profession within the Spanish healthcare system. {{HTitle|Incidence and Prevalence of Hearing Loss}} According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 survey — the largest population-based survey of hearing loss and hearing aid use in Spain — approximately 10.6% of the total Spanish population report living with hearing loss. Among adults aged 18 and over, the prevalence rises to 12.3%, representing an estimated five million people and placing Spain fifth in Europe for hearing loss prevalence. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" /> Hearing loss prevalence in Spain increases substantially with age, consistent with global trends in presbycusis (age-related hearing loss). Earlier population-based audiometric data also provide normative hearing threshold levels for screened Spanish adults, confirming the progressive nature of hearing loss across age groups. <ref name="Valiente2015">{{Cite journal|last=Valiente|first=A. R.|display-authors=etal|date=2015|title=Hearing Threshold Levels for an Otologically Screened Population in Spain|journal=International Journal of Audiology|volume=54|issue=8|pages=499–506}}</ref> Despite the high prevalence, hearing aid uptake remains modest: in 2023, only 39% of individuals with self-reported hearing loss in Spain were using hearing aids, a slight increase from 37% in 2020. Binaural fitting rates have improved, with 55% of users now fitted with two hearing aids, up from 47% in the previous survey. Among hearing aid users, 96% report that their devices improve their quality of life at least sometimes. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> The EuroTrak 2023 data also highlight the broader health and social benefits of hearing aid use. Users are less likely to experience depression, mental and physical fatigue, or poor sleep quality compared to those with untreated hearing loss — 51% of hearing aid users show depressive symptoms, compared to 60% of non-users with hearing loss. In the workplace, 96% of employed hearing aid users found their devices useful, with 70% rating them as significantly beneficial for their job performance. Additionally, 73% of users report a better social life since receiving their devices, and 87% feel safer navigating their urban environment due to improved detection of traffic and environmental sounds. A strong 67% of hearing aid users stated they should have started using their devices sooner, citing missed social opportunities and emotional wellbeing as their primary regrets. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> {{HTitle|Information About Audiology}} '''Education of Professionals Working in Hearing Care Services''' The primary educational route to working in hearing care in Spain has traditionally been the Grado Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a two-year vocational program. This qualification trains students to carry out audiological evaluations, select and fit hearing aids, maintain prosthetic devices, and advise patients and families on device use. It is available through numerous public and private institutions across the country, including distance learning options. <ref name="Educations2025">{{Citation|author=Educations.com|date=2025|title=Audiology Degree and FP Grado Superior in Prosthetic Audiology in Spain}}</ref><ref name="EUHASpain" /> Until very recently, no university-level undergraduate degree in audiology existed in Spain, a significant anomaly by international standards. Very recently, UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca became the first universities in Spain to offer a bachelor&#39;s degree in General Audiology. This degree covers the full scope of audiological practice, including clinical audiology, vestibular assessment, pediatric audiology, hearing rehabilitation, and research. <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /><ref name="Salamanca2024" /> Prior to this, some Spanish universities had offered postgraduate specialization diplomas in audiology, such as the University of Salamanca&#39;s 36-ECTS specialization program, but these did not constitute a full undergraduate degree. However, they provided high-quality training to many hearing care professionals providing services not only in Spain, but also in Latin American countries <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C. R.|last2=de Diego-Lázaro|first2=B.|date=2021|title=Servicios y formación de los técnicos superiores en audiología protésica en España: una comparación con el modelo de audiólogo general|journal=Auditio|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e78-e78}}</ref> {{HTitle|Scope of Practice and Licensing}} Professionals Providing Hearing Care Services Spain currently recognizes three professional categories involved in hearing care. First, the otorhinolaryngologist (ENT specialist), a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the ear but whose scope does not fully encompass the management of auditory function. Second, the Técnico Superior en Audiología Protésica (Technical Degree in Hearing Aid Dispensing), a vocational healthcare professional focused primarily on the selection, fitting, and maintenance of hearing aids, but not covering areas such as balance disorders, tinnitus, or pediatric audiology in depth. Third, the speech therapist (logopeda), who addresses communication and language disorders that may be associated with hearing loss. <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" /> The absence of a regulated, university-trained general audiologist, a professional with comprehensive competencies across the full scope of audiological practice (see EFAS <ref name="EFAS2001" />) , is widely identified as a structural gap in Spain&#39;s hearing care system. <ref name="AEDA2023">{{Cite journal|author=AEDA (Asamblea de la Asociación Española de Audiología)|date=2023|title=Posicionamiento de la AEDA acerca del grado universitario en audiología en España|journal=Auditio|volume=7}}</ref><ref name="UVicUCC2024" /> '''Audiological Services''' Audiological services in Spain are provided across public and private settings. In the public sector, hearing assessments and ENT consultations are accessible through the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS), with referrals typically initiated by primary care physicians. In the private sector, a network of hearing care centers, including major chains such as GAES, provides hearing testing, hearing aid fitting, and follow-up care. <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /><ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /> The Spanish hearing aids market was valued at approximately USD 348 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 791 million by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.74% over the forecast period. This growth is driven primarily by demographic pressures from an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and rapid technological advancement in device design. Behind-the-Ear (BTE) devices currently represent the largest product segment, while In-the-Ear (ITE) models are the fastest-growing, reflecting consumer demand for more discreet solutions. Digital hearing aids dominate the technology landscape. Key players active in the Spanish market include Sonova Holding AG, Amplifon S.p.A., Demant A/S, and WS Audiology. <ref name="MRFR2024">{{Citation|author=Market Research Future (MRFR)|date=2024|title=Spain Hearing Aids Market Size, Growth Report 2035}}</ref> '''Services Offered by Otolaryngologists, Otologists, and Otoneurologists''' ENT specialists form the medical backbone of hearing care in Spain. Services provided include diagnostic audiological assessments, surgical intervention for otological conditions, and cochlear implant programs. The Clínica Universidad de Navarra, in Pamplona (Navarra), for example, operates a well-established cochlear implant program within its Department of Otolaryngology, providing multidisciplinary assessment, surgery, and rehabilitation for candidates with severe to profound hearing loss. <ref name="CUNImplant2024">{{Citation|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology – Cochlear Implant Program}}</ref><ref name="CUNOtolaryngology2024">{{Citation|author=Clínica Universidad de Navarra|date=2024|title=Department of Otolaryngology}}</ref> '''Role of Primary Health Care Providers and Community Health Workers''' Primary care physicians (médicos de cabecera) play a central gatekeeping role in accessing hearing care services in Spain. According to the EuroTrak Spain 2023 data, 79% of hearing aid users first discussed their hearing loss with their family doctor; however, only 58% received a hearing aid recommendation from that consultation, and just 39% ultimately acquired hearing aids. These gaps highlight the importance of awareness and training at the primary care level. Access to financial support is also limited: only 26% of hearing aid owners in Spain reported receiving any third-party funding for their devices, and awareness of available coverage is low, with just 11% of non-users believing they would qualify for any subsidy. These barriers in both clinical referral and funding awareness contribute to the low overall uptake rate and point to the need for stronger integration of hearing care into primary care pathways <ref name="HearingYou2023" />. Additionally, recognizing the profession of general audiologist would allow integrating these professionals into the healthcare systems which would also reduce these barriers <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" />. '''Laws Related to Hearing Care Services''' The legal framework for hearing care in Spain is primarily governed by the Ley General de Sanidad (General Health Law) of 1986, which established the Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) and enshrined the right of all citizens to comprehensive healthcare, including prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. <ref name="Wikipedia2024" /> Regarding hearing aid provision, the SNS provides partial subsidies primarily for children and young people up to age 26 with a hearing loss of at least 40 dB in the better ear, subject to ENT prescription. Adult reimbursement is notably limited. The European Federation of Hard of Hearing People&#39;s 2022 report identifies Spain as one of seven European countries with worryingly low levels of hearing aid reimbursement, noting that Spain does not support hard-of-hearing adults with hearing aid reimbursement. <ref name="UVicUCC2024" /> {{HTitle|Professional and Regulatory Bodies}} The principal professional body for audiology in Spain is the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA), which represents audiologists and promotes the development of the profession. In 2023, AEDA published a formal position statement in AUDITIO, the Spanish Journal of Audiology calling for the establishment of a university degree in audiology in Spain, reflecting the profession&#39;s advocacy for higher-level training standards, and the recognition of the general audiologist profession. <ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> Hearing aid dispensers are represented by the Asociación Nacional de Audioprotesistas (ANA), which co-commissioned the EuroTrak Spain surveys in partnership with EHIMA (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association). <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /> Otorhinolaryngologists are represented by the Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Cirugía de Cabezay Cuello (SEORL-CCC), which includes otologists and other ENT specialists involved in the medical and surgical diagnosis and management of hearing and balance disorders. '''Scope of Practice and Licensing''' The scope of practice for hearing care professionals in Spain is currently fragmented. The hearing aid dispenser is licensed to fit and dispense hearing aids but is not recognized as having the full clinical competencies of a general audiologist. ENT specialists hold the broadest medical authority over ear-related conditions. Speech therapists hold a university degree and are regulated health professionals, but their scope is primarily linguistic and communicative rather than audiological. <ref name="AudiologyWorldnewsSpain" /><ref name="EUHASpain" /> It is expected that, in the coming years, the recently established undergraduate degrees in audiology, together with the work of professional audiology societies, will support the formal recognition of general audiologist as a new regulated profession in Spain. This development would broaden the scope of audiological practice, enabling general audiologists to provide high-quality services across both the public and private hearing healthcare systems. <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> {{HTitle|Ongoing audiology research}} Spain has a long and distinguished history of hearing research dating back to the pioneering neuroscientific work of Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the early twentieth century. His studies on the structure of the nervous system laid important foundations for understanding the neural basis of hearing <ref name="Saldana2025">{{Cite journal|last=Saldaña|first=E.|last2=de Castro|first2=F.|last3=López|first3=D. E.|last4=Malmierca|first4=M. S.|date=2025|title=Miguel A. Merchán and the Cajalian influence: Pioneering auditory neuroscience in Spain|journal=Hearing Research|volume=464|pages=109323}}</ref><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025">{{Cite journal|last=Benítez-Barrera|first=C.|date=2025|title=Ciencia en Español desde Salamanca: De la Neurobiología Auditiva de Cajal a la Audiología Contemporánea: Comentario al artículo de Saldaña y colaboradores (2025) publicado en Hearing Research|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e119-e119}}</ref>. This tradition has continued through an important lineage of auditory neuroscience researchers, many of whom have been affiliated with the Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL) at the University of Salamanca and have made internationally recognized contributions to the field <ref name="Saldana2025" /><ref name="BenitezBarrera2025" />. More recently, Spanish researchers have made internationally recognized contributions to psychoacoustics, cochlear implants, auditory perception, and hidden hearing loss. Among the most influential is Dr. Enrique López-Poveda (INCYL, University of Salamanca), whose work on computational auditory modeling, speech perception, cochlear implants, and hidden hearing loss has had a substantial international impact <ref name="LopezPoveda2014">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|date=2014|title=Why do I hear but not understand? Stochastic undersampling as a model of degraded neural encoding of speech|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=348}}</ref><ref name="LopezPovedaMarrufoPerez2025">{{Cite journal|last=Lopez-Poveda|first=E. A.|last2=Marrufo-Pérez|first2=M. I.|date=2025|title=¿ Audífono o implante coclear? Una propuesta razonada para decidir cuál es el momento de indicar un implante coclear|journal=Auditio|volume=9|pages=e120-e120}}</ref>. Significant contributions have also been made by clinician-scientists, including Drs. Manuel Manrique and Alicia Huarte at Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), whose work has advanced cochlear implantation and hearing rehabilitation <ref name="ManriqueHuarte2016">{{Cite journal|last=Manrique-Huarte|first=R.|last2=Calavia|first2=D.|last3=Huarte Irujo|first3=A.|last4=Girón|first4=L.|last5=Manrique-Rodríguez|first5=M.|date=2016|title=Treatment for hearing loss among the elderly: auditory outcomes and impact on quality of life|journal=Audiology and Neurotology|volume=21|issue=Suppl. 1|pages=29–35}}</ref>, as well as Dr. José Juan Barajas del Prat (Clínica Barajas, Tenerife, Spain), who has made important contributions to auditory evoked potentials and to the development of clinical audiology and hearing healthcare internationally <ref name="BarajasPrat2007">{{Cite book|last=Barajas de Prat|first=J.|last2=Zenker Castro|first2=F.|last3=Fernández Belda|first3=R.|date=2007|chapter=Potenciales evocados auditivos|editor-last=Suárez|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Gil-Carcedo|editor-first2=L. M.|title=Tratado de otorrinolaringología y patología de cabeza y cuello|volume=6|pages=1133–1155|publisher=Editorial Médica Panamericana}}</ref><ref name="BarajasZenker2002">{{Cite journal|last=Barajas del Prat|first=J. J.|last2=Zenker|first2=F.|date=2002|title=Steady-state auditory evoked potentials: Review|journal=Auditio|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.51445/sja.auditio.vol1.2002.0010}}</ref>. Finally, also in the Canary Islands, the research group led by Dr. Ángel Ramos pioneered the development of a vestibular implant <ref name="RamosMiguel2017">{{Cite journal|last=Ramos de Miguel|first=Á.|last2=Falcon Gonzalez|first2=J. C.|last3=Ramos Macias|first3=A.|date=2017|title=Vestibular response to electrical stimulation of the otolith organs. Implications in the development of a vestibular implant for the improvement of the sensation of gravitoinertial accelerations|journal=Journal of International Advanced Otology|volume=13|pages=154–161}}</ref>. In recent years, a new generation of Spanish hearing scientists has emerged following advanced training at leading international institutions. Researchers such as Drs. Waldo Nogueira (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona/Hannover Medical School) and Joaquín Valderrama (University of Granada) exemplify this trend, contributing to the expansion of audiology research and strengthening Spain&#39;s academic capacity in hearing science. As a result, research in both basic and clinical audiology continues to grow, positioning Spain as an increasingly active contributor to international hearing research. The relaunch of AUDITIO – The Spanish Journal of Audiology by the Asociación Española de Audiología (AEDA) in 2021 represents another important milestone (https://journal.auditio.com/auditio). The journal provides an international platform for research in clinical audiology, hearing technology, professional practice, and public health audiology, reflecting Spain’s growing contribution to the global audiology community. Importantly, AUDITIO publishes all articles in both English and Spanish, underscoring its international, inclusive, and multilingual mission. {{HTitle|Challenges, Opportunities and Notes}} Spain&#39;s hearing care landscape faces several significant challenges. First, the absence of full reimbursement for hearing aids for adults under the SNS creates financial barriers for a large portion of the population with hearing loss. Spain is identified among European nations with the lowest levels of adult hearing aid coverage. <ref name="EFHOH2022">{{Cite report|author=European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH)|date=2022|title=State of Provision of Hearing Aids in Europe 2022 Report}}</ref> Second, with only 39% of those with hearing loss using hearing aids, and with stigma reported as a major barrier, particularly among younger adults, awareness and destigmatisation campaigns remain a critical need. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="HearingYou2023" /> Third, the historical absence of a university-level audiology degree has meant that Spain has lacked a cadre of comprehensively trained general audiologists capable of addressing the full scope of hearing healthcare, including vestibular disorders, tinnitus, and complex pediatric cases. <ref name="AEDA2023" /><ref name="BenitezBarreraDiegoLazaro2021" /> However, there are important opportunities. The launch of the first audiology degrees at UVic-UCC and University of Salamanca marks a turning point for the profession. The growing evidence base, including population-level EuroTrak data, normative audiometric studies, and validated assessment tools, provides a stronger foundation for policy advocacy. The Spanish hearing aid market is projected to grow from USD 348 million in 2024 to USD 791 million by 2035 (CAGR 7.74%), driven by an ageing population, rising health consciousness, and the integration of technologies such as Bluetooth connectivity, artificial intelligence, and personalized fitting algorithms into hearing devices. Emerging telehealth platforms for remote audiology services represent a further opportunity to extend access beyond major urban centers. <ref name="EuroTrakSpain2023" /><ref name="MRFR2024" /> {{HTitle|Audiology Charities}} Spain has several organizations working to support people with hearing loss and advocate for improved hearing healthcare. The Confederación Española de Familias de Personas Sordas (FIAPAS) is a leading national organization representing families and individuals affected by hearing impairment. At the European level, the European Federation of Hard of Hearing People (EFHOH) includes Spain among its member organisations and has drawn attention to Spain&#39;s limited hearing aid reimbursement policies.<ref name="EFHOH2022" />{{HTitle|References}} <references responsive="" /> {{:Global Audiology/Authors-1|Carlos Benitez Barrera|https://www.usf.edu/cbcs/csd/faculty-staff/barrera-carlos.aspx}} ''Edited by'' Nausheen Dawood and [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sajana-aryal-phd-209612187/ Sajana Aryal] [[Category:Audiology]] [[Category:Spain]] 3htis5dxzbidcj39mbexzloevsgfd3c 0 329548 2819446 2819269 2026-07-26T14:40:53Z Athene241 3100061 /* Data */ 2819446 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s) By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both "numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''" and "length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''" are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'' (references: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjecture-reserves.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjecture-reserves.htm), in fact, Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' and the Riesel problem base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' or the Riesel problem base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068), ''b''^''n''+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101), (''b''^''n''+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for bases ''b'' with ''sqrt''(''b'') prime: https://oeis.org/A065507), ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404), 2×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624), 2×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591), ''b''^''n''+2 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067), ''b''^''n''−2 (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139), ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179), ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435)): Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0? Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19^''n''−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19^''n''/2−1) × (2×19^''n''/2+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime). == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11] Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13] Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14] Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15] Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16] Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18] Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20] Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22] Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23] Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24] Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25] Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26] Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27] Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28] Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29] Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30] Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31] Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32] Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33] Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34] Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35] Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36] == Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 == {|class="wikitable" ||''b''||number of minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b''||base-''b'' form of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b'' (write "''d''_''n''" if there are 5 or more (''n'') consecutive same digits ''d'')||length of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b''||length of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b'' in decimal||algebraic ((''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)) form of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b''||''factordb'' entry of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality)||the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) written in base ''b'' (use lower case letters instead of upper case letters)||the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) written in decimal||factorization of the first 200 numbers in corresponding family (''n'' is the number of digits in the "{}", start with the smallest ''n'' making the number > ''b'' (if ''n'' = 0 already makes the number > ''b'', then start with ''n'' = 0) of the top 10 known minimal primes)||number of left families in base ''b'' (all of these left families are linear families)||searching limit of length for the left families in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the left families in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)|| |- ||2||1||11||2||1||3||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3&base=2||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3||–||0||–|| |- ||3||3||111<br>21<br>12||3<br>2<br>2||2<br>1<br>1||13<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=3||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5||–<br>–<br>–||0||–|| |- ||4||5||221<br>31<br>23<br>13<br>11||3<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||2<br>2<br>2<br>1<br>1||41<br>13<br>11<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=41&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=4||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5||–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–||0||–|| |- ||5||22||10₉₃13<br>300031<br>44441<br>33331<br>33001<br>30301<br>14444<br>10103<br>3101<br>414||96<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4<br>3||67<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>3<br>3<br>3||5⁹⁵+8<br>9391<br>3121<br>2341<br>2251<br>1951<br>1249<br>653<br>401<br>109||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9391&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2341&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2251&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1951&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1249&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=653&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=401&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=109&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109&base=5||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=5%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B8&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–||0||–|| |- 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|- ||7||71||3₁₆1<br>510₇1<br>3₆01<br>1100021<br>531101<br>351101<br>300053<br>150001<br>100121<br>40054||17<br>10<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>5||15<br>9<br>7<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4||(7¹⁷−5)/2<br>36×7⁸+1<br>(7⁸−47)/2<br>134471<br>91631<br>62819<br>50459<br>28813<br>16871<br>9643||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=116315256993601&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=207532837&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2882377&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=134471&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=91631&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=62819&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=50459&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=28813&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=16871&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9643&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=116315256993601&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=207532837&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2882377&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=134471&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=91631&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=62819&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=50459&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=28813&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=16871&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9643&base=7||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=116315256993601<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=207532837<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2882377<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=134471<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=91631<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=62819<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=50459<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=28813<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=16871<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9643||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287%5E%28n%2B1%29-5%29%2F2&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=36''7%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B1&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287%5E%28n%2B2%29-47%29%2F2&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–<br>–||0||–|| |- ||8||75||4₂₂₀7<br>5₁₃25<br>7₁₂1<br>77774₆1<br>74₇1<br>4₈1<br>5₅025<br>5550525<br>5500525<br>4₅77||221<br>15<br>13<br>11<br>9<br>9<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||200<br>14<br>12<br>10<br>9<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||(4×8²²¹+17)/7<br>(5×8¹⁵−173)/7<br>8¹³−7<br>(28669×8⁷−25)/7<br>(53×8⁸−25)/7<br>(4×8⁹−25)/7<br>(5×8⁸−2413)/7<br>1495381<br>1474901<br>(4×8⁷+185)/7||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=25131694349141&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=549755813881&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=8589035809&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=127027489&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=76695841&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11983381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1495381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1474901&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1198399&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000416605822&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=25131694349141&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=549755813881&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=8589035809&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=127027489&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=76695841&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11983381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1495381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1474901&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1198399&base=8||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000416605822<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=25131694349141<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=549755813881<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=8589035809<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=127027489<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=76695841<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11983381<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1495381<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1474901<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1198399||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%284''8%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B17%29%2F7&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285''8%5E%28n%2B2%29-173%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=8%5E%28n%2B1%29-7&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2828669''8%5E%28n%2B1%29-25%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2853''8%5E%28n%2B1%29-25%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%284''8%5E%28n%2B1%29-25%29%2F7&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285''8%5E%28n%2B3%29-2413%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>–<br>–<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%284''8%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B185%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show||0||–|| |- ||9||151||30₁₁₅₈11<br>27₆₈₆07<br>76₃₂₉2<br>561₃₆<br>10₂₅57<br>30₂₀51<br>8₁₉335<br>727₁₅07<br>51₁₃61<br>10₁₁507||1161<br>689<br>331<br>38<br>28<br>23<br>22<br>19<br>16<br>15||1108<br>657<br>316<br>37<br>26<br>22<br>21<br>19<br>16<br>14||3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10<br>(23×9⁶⁸⁸−511)/8<br>(31×9³³⁰−19)/4<br>(409×9³⁶−1)/8<br>9²⁷+52<br>3×9²²+46<br>9²²−454<br>(527×9¹⁷−511)/8<br>(41×9¹⁵+359)/8<br>9¹⁴+412||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001554010824&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002512830927&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000032261811&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495736583&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003446800389&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1055192051985121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22876792455373&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002376318423&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495467486&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002359003642&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001554010824&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002512830927&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000032261811&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495736583&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003446800389&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1055192051985121&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22876792455373&base=9||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002376318423<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495467486<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002359003642<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001554010824<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002512830927<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000032261811<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495736583<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003446800389<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1055192051985121<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22876792455373||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=3''9%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B10&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2823''9%5E%28n%2B2%29-511%29%2F8&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2831''9%5E%28n%2B1%29-19%29%2F4&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28409''9%5En-1%29%2F8&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=9%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B52&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=3''9%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B46&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=9%5E%28n%2B3%29-454&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28527''9%5E%28n%2B2%29-511%29%2F8&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2841''9%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B359%29%2F8&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=9%5E%28n%2B3%29%2B412&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show||0||–|| |- ||10||77||50₂₈27<br>5₁₁1<br>805₅1<br>66600049<br>66000049<br>60₅49<br>220₅1<br>5200007<br>946669<br>666649||31<br>12<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6||31<br>12<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6||5×10³⁰+27<br>(5×10¹²−41)/9<br>(725×10⁶−41)/9<br>66600049<br>66000049<br>6×10⁷+49<br>22×10⁶+1<br>5200007<br>946669<br>666649||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000204142046&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=555555555551&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=80555551&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=66600049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=66000049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=60000049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22000001&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5200007&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=946669&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=666649&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000204142046&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=555555555551&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=80555551&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66600049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66000049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=60000049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22000001&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5200007&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=946669&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=666649&base=10||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000204142046<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=555555555551<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=80555551<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66600049<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66000049<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=60000049<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22000001<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5200007<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=946669<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=666649||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=5''10%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B27&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285''10%5E%28n%2B1%29-41%29%2F9&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28725''10%5E%28n%2B1%29-41%29%2F9&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>–<br>–<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=6''10%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B49&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=22''10%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B1&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>–<br>–<br>–||0||–|| |- ||11||1068||57₆₂₆₆₈<br>557₁₀₁₁<br>7₇₅₉44<br>A₇₁₃58<br>85₂₂₀05<br>507₂₀₆<br>5₁₆₁2A<br>50₁₂₆57<br>10₁₂₅51<br>326₁₂₂||62669<br>1013<br>761<br>715<br>223<br>208<br>163<br>129<br>128<br>124||65263<br>1055<br>793<br>745<br>233<br>217<br>170<br>134<br>133<br>129||(57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10<br>(607×11¹⁰¹¹−7)/10<br>(7×11⁷⁶¹−367)/10<br>11⁷¹⁵−58<br>(17×11²²²−111)/2<br>(557×11²⁰⁶−7)/10<br>(11¹⁶³−57)/2<br>5×11¹²⁸+62<br>11¹²⁷+56<br>(178×11¹²²−3)/5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003573679860&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002361376522&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002505568840&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826769&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002518512744&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391585327&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632393378&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391531300&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826781&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003573679860&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002361376522&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002505568840&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826487&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826769&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002518512744&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391585327&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632393378&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391531300&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826781&base=11||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003573679860<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002361376522<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002505568840<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826487<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826769<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002518512744<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391585327<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632393378<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391531300<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826781||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2857''11%5En-7%29%2F10&use=n&n=1&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28607''11%5En-7%29%2F10&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%287''11%5E%28n%2B2%29-367%29%2F10&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11%5E%28n%2B2%29-58&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2817''11%5E%28n%2B2%29-111%29%2F2&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28557''11%5En-7%29%2F10&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2811%5E%28n%2B2%29-57%29%2F2&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=5''11%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B62&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=11%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B56&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28178''11%5En-3%29%2F5&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show||0||–|| |- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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|- 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||36||35286\~35290||P₈₁₉₉₃SZ<br>S0₇₅₀₀₇8H<br>7K₂₆₅₆₇Z<br>J₁₀₁₁₇LJ<br>VL0₇₂₅₈J<br>EO0₆₁₇₇V<br>FZ₅₇₇₇3P<br>T09₄₆₁₈1<br>RY₄₅₆₂H<br>OZ₃₉₃₂AZ||81995<br>75010<br>26569<br>10119<br>7261<br>6180<br>5780<br>4621<br>4564<br>3935||127609<br>116739<br>41349<br>15748<br>11301<br>9618<br>8996<br>7192<br>7103<br>6124||(5×36⁸¹⁹⁹⁵+821)/7<br>28×36⁷⁵⁰⁰⁹+305<br>(53×36²⁶⁵⁶⁸+101)/7<br>(19×36¹⁰¹¹⁹+2501)/35<br>1137×36⁷²⁵⁹+19<br>528×36⁶¹⁷⁸+31<br>16×36⁵⁷⁷⁹−1163<br>(36549×36⁴⁶¹⁹−289)/35<br>(979×36⁴⁵⁶³−629)/35<br>25×36³⁹³⁴−901||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002394962083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004020085177&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003896952461&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362491&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362489&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362488&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362485&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840634476&open=prime||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476&base=36||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476||http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%285''36%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B821%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=28''36%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B305&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2853''36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B101%29%2F7&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2819''36%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B2501%29%2F35&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=1137''36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B19&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=528''36%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B31&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=16''36%5E%28n%2B2%29-1163&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2836549''36%5E%28n%2B1%29-289%29%2F35&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28979''36%5E%28n%2B1%29-629%29%2F35&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?query=25''36%5E%28n%2B2%29-901&use=n&n=0&VP=on&VC=on&EV=on&OD=on&PR=on&FF=on&PRP=on&CF=on&U=on&C=on&perpage=200&format=1&sent=Show||4||200000|| |} == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] svgr8hvsmmfcrcgvrsjzd1mppy84z9z 2819448 2819446 2026-07-26T14:46:48Z Athene241 3100061 2819448 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s) By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both "numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''" and "length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''" are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'' (references: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjecture-reserves.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjecture-reserves.htm), in fact, Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' and the Riesel problem base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' or the Riesel problem base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068), ''b''^''n''+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101), (''b''^''n''+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for bases ''b'' with ''sqrt''(''b'') prime: https://oeis.org/A065507), ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404), 2×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624), 2×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591), ''b''^''n''+2 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067), ''b''^''n''−2 (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139), ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179), ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435)): Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0? Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19^''n''−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19^''n''/2−1) × (2×19^''n''/2+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime). == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11] Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13] Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14] Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15] Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16] Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18] Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20] Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22] Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23] Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24] Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25] Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26] Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27] Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28] Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29] Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30] Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31] Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32] Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33] Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34] Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35] Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36] == Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 == {|class="wikitable" ||''b''||number of minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b''||base-''b'' form of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b'' (write "''d''_''n''" if there are 5 or more (''n'') consecutive same digits ''d'')||length of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b''||length of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b'' in decimal||algebraic ((''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)) form of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) base ''b''||''factordb'' entry of the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality)||the top 10 known minimal primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) written in base ''b'' (use lower case letters instead of upper case letters)||number of left families in base ''b'' (all of these left families are linear families)||searching limit of length for the left families in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the left families in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)|| |- ||2||1||11||2||1||3||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3&base=2||0||–|| |- ||3||3||111<br>21<br>12||3<br>2<br>2||2<br>1<br>1||13<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=3<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||4||5||221<br>31<br>23<br>13<br>11||3<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||2<br>2<br>2<br>1<br>1||41<br>13<br>11<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=41&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=4<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||5||22||10₉₃13<br>300031<br>44441<br>33331<br>33001<br>30301<br>14444<br>10103<br>3101<br>414||96<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4<br>3||67<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>3<br>3<br>3||5⁹⁵+8<br>9391<br>3121<br>2341<br>2251<br>1951<br>1249<br>653<br>401<br>109||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9391&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2341&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2251&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1951&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1249&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=653&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=401&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=109&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109&base=5<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||6||11||40041<br>4441<br>4401<br>51<br>45<br>35<br>31<br>25<br>21<br>15||5<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||4<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||5209<br>1033<br>1009<br>31<br>29<br>23<br>19<br>17<br>13<br>11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5209&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1033&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1009&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=31&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=29&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=23&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=19&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=17&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5209&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1033&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1009&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=31&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=29&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=23&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=19&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=17&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=6<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||7||71||3₁₆1<br>510₇1<br>3₆01<br>1100021<br>531101<br>351101<br>300053<br>150001<br>100121<br>40054||17<br>10<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>5||15<br>9<br>7<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4||(7¹⁷−5)/2<br>36×7⁸+1<br>(7⁸−47)/2<br>134471<br>91631<br>62819<br>50459<br>28813<br>16871<br>9643||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=116315256993601&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=207532837&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2882377&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=134471&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=91631&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=62819&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=50459&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=28813&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=16871&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9643&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=116315256993601&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=207532837&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2882377&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=134471&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=91631&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=62819&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=50459&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=28813&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=16871&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9643&base=7<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||8||75||4₂₂₀7<br>5₁₃25<br>7₁₂1<br>77774₆1<br>74₇1<br>4₈1<br>5₅025<br>5550525<br>5500525<br>4₅77||221<br>15<br>13<br>11<br>9<br>9<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||200<br>14<br>12<br>10<br>9<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||(4×8²²¹+17)/7<br>(5×8¹⁵−173)/7<br>8¹³−7<br>(28669×8⁷−25)/7<br>(53×8⁸−25)/7<br>(4×8⁹−25)/7<br>(5×8⁸−2413)/7<br>1495381<br>1474901<br>(4×8⁷+185)/7||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=25131694349141&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=549755813881&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=8589035809&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=127027489&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=76695841&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11983381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1495381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1474901&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1198399&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000416605822&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=25131694349141&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=549755813881&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=8589035809&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=127027489&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=76695841&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11983381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1495381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1474901&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1198399&base=8<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||9||151||30₁₁₅₈11<br>27₆₈₆07<br>76₃₂₉2<br>561₃₆<br>10₂₅57<br>30₂₀51<br>8₁₉335<br>727₁₅07<br>51₁₃61<br>10₁₁507||1161<br>689<br>331<br>38<br>28<br>23<br>22<br>19<br>16<br>15||1108<br>657<br>316<br>37<br>26<br>22<br>21<br>19<br>16<br>14||3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10<br>(23×9⁶⁸⁸−511)/8<br>(31×9³³⁰−19)/4<br>(409×9³⁶−1)/8<br>9²⁷+52<br>3×9²²+46<br>9²²−454<br>(527×9¹⁷−511)/8<br>(41×9¹⁵+359)/8<br>9¹⁴+412||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001554010824&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002512830927&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000032261811&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495736583&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003446800389&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1055192051985121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22876792455373&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002376318423&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495467486&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002359003642&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001554010824&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002512830927&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000032261811&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495736583&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003446800389&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1055192051985121&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22876792455373&base=9<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||10||77||50₂₈27<br>5₁₁1<br>805₅1<br>66600049<br>66000049<br>60₅49<br>220₅1<br>5200007<br>946669<br>666649||31<br>12<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6||31<br>12<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6||5×10³⁰+27<br>(5×10¹²−41)/9<br>(725×10⁶−41)/9<br>66600049<br>66000049<br>6×10⁷+49<br>22×10⁶+1<br>5200007<br>946669<br>666649||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000204142046&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=555555555551&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=80555551&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=66600049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=66000049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=60000049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22000001&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5200007&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=946669&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=666649&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000204142046&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=555555555551&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=80555551&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66600049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66000049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=60000049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22000001&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5200007&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=946669&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=666649&base=10<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- 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|- ||19||31417\~31434||1E70₁₂₂₈₉₆1<br>40₁₂₁₈₄₆HB5<br>35₁₂₀₅₆₂<br>FH0H₁₁₂₆₅₉<br>FG6₁₁₀₉₈₄<br>H₈₆₂₉₁6<br>D90₇₃₀₄₆9<br>4F0₄₉₈₄₇6<br>2₄₈₂₂₄7<br>2₄₅₈₈₆7A||122900<br>121850<br>120563<br>112662<br>110986<br>86292<br>73049<br>49850<br>48225<br>45888||157158<br>155816<br>154170<br>144067<br>110347<br>141924<br>93412<br>63746<br>61667<br>58679||634×19¹²²⁸⁹⁷+1<br>4×19¹²¹⁸⁴⁹+6351<br>(59×19¹²⁰⁵⁶²−5)/18<br>(103301×19¹¹²⁶⁵⁹−17)/18<br>(904×19¹¹⁰⁹⁸⁴−1)/3<br>(17×19⁸⁶²⁹²−215)/18<br>256×19⁷³⁰⁴⁷+9<br>91×19⁴⁹⁸⁴⁸+6<br>(19⁴⁸²²⁵+44)/9<br>(19⁴⁵⁸⁸⁸+926)/9||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001582289581&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755307222&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005513825027&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755311453&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118212&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004163040839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003998413751&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118332&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949188041&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949189035&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001582289581&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755307222&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005513825027&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755311453&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118212&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004163040839&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003998413751&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118332&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949188041&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949189035&base=19<nowiki/>||17||200000|| |- 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|- ||21||13386\~13394||27₁₈₄₄₉₉9D<br>F9₁₇₈₇₇₁D<br>2FC₁₁₂₀₂₂A<br>7₁₀₈₄₅₀ID<br>40₄₇₃₃₃9G<br>B90₄₅₀₁₉E5<br>HD₃₇₄₁₄<br>BD₃₅₀₂₇B<br>990₃₃₂₃₉99H<br>5₃₀₆₀₆FEK||184502<br>178773<br>112025<br>108452<br>47336<br>45023<br>37415<br>35029<br>33244<br>30609||243952<br>236377<br>148121<br>143397<br>62588<br>59531<br>49471<br>46316<br>43956<br>40472||(47×21¹⁸⁴⁵⁰¹+953)/20<br>(309×21¹⁷⁸⁷⁷²+71)/20<br>(288×21¹¹²⁰²³−13)/5<br>(7×21¹⁰⁸⁴⁵²+4733)/20<br>4×21⁴⁷³³⁵+205<br>240×21⁴⁵⁰²¹+299<br>(353×21³⁷⁴¹⁴−13)/20<br>(233×21³⁵⁰²⁸−53)/20<br>198×21³³²⁴²+4175<br>(21³⁰⁶⁰⁹+18455)/4||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700600990&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700596669&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700593358&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700586183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118331&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110311&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110479&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110718&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110944&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996111130&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700600990&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700596669&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700593358&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700586183&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118331&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110311&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110479&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110718&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110944&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996111130&base=21<nowiki/>||8||200000|| |- ||22||8003||BK₂₂₀₀₁5<br>7₃₈₁₅2L<br>L₂₃₈₅KE7<br>7₉₅₉K7<br>J0₇₆₇IGGJ<br>K0₇₆₀EC1<br>I₆₂₆AF<br>E60₄₉₆L<br>L₄₈₃G3<br>L0₄₅₄B63||22003<br>3817<br>2388<br>961<br>772<br>764<br>628<br>499<br>485<br>458||29538<br>5124<br>3206<br>1290<br>1037<br>1026<br>843<br>670<br>652<br>615||(251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21<br>(22³⁸¹⁷−289)/3<br>22²³⁸⁸−653<br>(22⁹⁶¹+857)/3<br>19×22⁷⁷¹+199779<br>20×22⁷⁶³+7041<br>(6×22⁶²⁸−1259)/7<br>314×22⁴⁹⁷+21<br>22⁴⁸⁵−129<br>21×22⁴⁵⁷+5459||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003594696838&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591359839&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591360774&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591361817&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591362567&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724415&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724334&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632703239&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591364730&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591365331&base=22<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||23||65178\~65265||B0₉₃₀₄₆FB<br>L₈₆₄₄₄D<br>AJ₈₁₀₆₅4<br>20₇₃₅₆₀98<br>J₆₈₂₁₇G4<br>D70₆₆₇₇₀B<br>5F₆₂₃₄₀6<br>A7M7₆₁₅₃₂<br>B30₆₁₁₃₆5<br>EJ₅₂₁₆₉||93049<br>86445<br>81067<br>73563<br>68219<br>66773<br>62342<br>61535<br>61139<br>52170||126708<br>117715<br>110391<br>100172<br>92896<br>90927<br>84893<br>83794<br>83255<br>71042||11×23⁹³⁰⁴⁸+356<br>(21×23⁸⁶⁴⁴⁵−197)/22<br>(239×23⁸¹⁰⁶⁶−349)/22<br>2×23⁷³⁵⁶²+215<br>(19×23⁶⁸²¹⁹−1867)/22<br>306×23⁶⁶⁷⁷¹+11<br>(125×23⁶²³⁴¹−213)/22<br>(120413×23⁶¹⁵³²−7)/22<br>256×23⁶¹¹³⁷+5<br>(327×23⁵²¹⁶⁹−19)/22||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691540361&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691546739&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548070&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548569&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549462&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549803&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691551005&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691556967&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557548&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691540361&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691546739&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548070&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548569&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549462&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549803&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691551005&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691556967&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557254&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557548&base=23<nowiki/>||87||100000|| |- ||24||3409||N00N₈₁₂₉LN<br>88N₅₉₅₁<br>A0₂₉₅₁8ID<br>D₂₆₉₈LD<br>N₂₆₄₄LLN<br>BC0₃₃₁B<br>20₃₁₃7<br>C7₂₉₈<br>D0₂₅₉KKD<br>I0₂₄₁I5||8134<br>5953<br>2955<br>2700<br>2647<br>334<br>315<br>299<br>263<br>244||11227<br>8216<br>4079<br>3727<br>3654<br>461<br>434<br>413<br>363<br>337||13249×24⁸¹³¹−49<br>201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1<br>10×24²⁹⁵⁴+5053<br>(13×24²⁷⁰⁰+4403)/23<br>24²⁶⁴⁷−1201<br>276×24³³²+11<br>2×24³¹⁴+7<br>(283×24²⁹⁸−7)/23<br>13×24²⁶²+12013<br>18×24²⁴³+437||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593391606&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593275880&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269654&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269876&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270089&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633359842&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355610241&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002326181235&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270725&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633360037&base=24<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||25||133639~133724||E₉₈₃₉₆FOO<br>1J710₉₆₂₇₂1<br>NB0₈₅₅₉₈5NH<br>D70₈₁₅₈₁JJ7<br>F0₈₀₀₅₄HL<br>J010₇₅₉₄₃E7<br>K₆₇₇₇₁5I<br>LO₆₆₃₇₇KC<br>KJD0₆₃₃₉₉1<br>70₆₀₈₉₂D711||98399<br>96277<br>85603<br>81586<br>80057<br>75948<br>67773<br>66380<br>63403<br>60897||137556<br>134589<br>119668<br>114053<br>111915<br>106171<br>94743<br>92796<br>88634<br>85130||(7×25⁹⁸³⁹⁹+10613)/12<br>27676×25⁹⁶²⁷³+1<br>586×25⁸⁵⁶⁰¹+3717<br>332×25⁸¹⁵⁸⁴+12357<br>15×25⁸⁰⁰⁵⁶+446<br>11876×25⁷⁵⁹⁴⁵+357<br>(5×25⁶⁷⁷⁷³−2267)/6<br>22×25⁶⁶³⁷⁹−113<br>12988×25⁶³⁴⁰⁰+1<br>7×25⁶⁰⁸⁹⁶+207526||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118215&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003983674902&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909706420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909733266&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909750102&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909770736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986394&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118270&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986664&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986798&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118215&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003983674902&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909706420&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909733266&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909750102&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909770736&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986394&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118270&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986664&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986798&base=25<nowiki/>||85||100000|| |- ||26||25256\~25259||85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B<br>M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB<br>J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB<br>6K₂₃₃₀₀5<br>LD0₂₀₉₇₅7<br>7₂₀₂₇₉OL<br>5₁₉₃₉₁6F<br>9GDK₁₅₉₂₀P<br>M₈₇₇₂P<br>K0₄₃₆₄I5||197063<br>61190<br>44307<br>23302<br>20978<br>20281<br>19393<br>15924<br>8773<br>4367||278839<br>86583<br>62694<br>32972<br>29684<br>28697<br>27440<br>22532<br>12414<br>6180||(5347×26¹⁹⁷⁰⁶¹−297)/25<br>22×26⁶¹¹⁸⁹+1649<br>19×26⁴⁴³⁰⁶+13843<br>(34×26²³³⁰¹−79)/5<br>559×26²⁰⁹⁷⁶+7<br>(7×26²⁰²⁸¹+11393)/25<br>(26¹⁹³⁹³+179)/5<br>(32569×26¹⁵⁹²¹+21)/5<br>(22×26⁸⁷⁷³+53)/25<br>20×26⁴³⁶⁶+473||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008573990023&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968169875&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968156595&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628658&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628605&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151202&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850155316&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000758011195&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002634136508&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008573990023&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968169875&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968156595&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628745&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628658&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628605&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151202&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850155316&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000758011195&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002634136508&base=26<nowiki/>||3||200000|| |- 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|- ||28||25528\~25529||O4O₉₄₅₃₅9<br>5OA₃₁₂₃₈F<br>N6₂₄₀₅₁LR<br>D0₅₂₆₇77D<br>QO₄₂₃₉69<br>5₃₇₄₆8P<br>G0₁₈₉₉AN<br>A₁₄₂₃6F<br>5I₁₃₇₀F<br>5₁₃₃₂P8P||94538<br>31241<br>24054<br>5271<br>4242<br>3748<br>1902<br>1425<br>1372<br>1335||136812<br>45210<br>34810<br>7628<br>6139<br>5424<br>2753<br>2062<br>1985<br>1932||(6092×28⁹⁴⁵³⁶−143)/9<br>(4438×28³¹²³⁹+125)/27<br>(209×28²⁴⁰⁵³+3967)/9<br>13×28⁵²⁷⁰+5697<br>(242×28⁴²⁴¹−4679)/9<br>(5×28³⁷⁴⁸+2803)/27<br>16×28¹⁹⁰¹+303<br>(10×28¹⁴²⁵−2899)/27<br>(17×28¹³⁷¹−11)/3<br>(5×28¹³³⁵+426163)/27||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118231&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003880455200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003879667576&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839934&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161973&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839947&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161972&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161965&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118231&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003880455200&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003879667576&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151420&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839934&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161974&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161973&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839947&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161972&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161965&base=28<nowiki/>||1||900000|| |- ||29||355242\~355367||830₉₉₃₇₇4<br>GP5J₉₄₉₃₅<br>P05J₉₀₂₈₉<br>BBD0₈₈₈₈₈PB<br>8B₈₅₃₃₃G<br>L0₈₁₅₇₁5955<br>E0₇₇₃₇₂L7B<br>LPC₇₅₁₅₁9<br>JR0₇₄₆₂₂7<br>B₇₄₅₀₁0RP||99380<br>94938<br>90292<br>88893<br>85335<br>81576<br>77376<br>75154<br>74625<br>74504||145333<br>138837<br>132043<br>129997<br>124794<br>119297<br>113155<br>109905<br>109132<br>108955||235×29⁹⁹³⁷⁸+4<br>(397227×29⁹⁴⁹³⁵−19)/28<br>(588859×29⁹⁰²⁸⁹−19)/28<br>9583×29⁸⁸⁸⁹⁰+736<br>(235×29⁸⁵³³⁴+129)/14<br>21×29⁸¹⁵⁷⁵+129664<br>14×29⁷⁷³⁷⁵+17875<br>(4441×29⁷⁵¹⁵²−24)/7<br>578×29⁷⁴⁶²³+7<br>(11×29⁷⁴⁵⁰⁴−245655)/28||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253882372&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253893542&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253899083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253909183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253921388&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253925955&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253931446&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118236&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253934219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253936120&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253882372&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253893542&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253899083&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253909183&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253921388&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253925955&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253931446&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118236&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253934219&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253936120&base=29<nowiki/>||125||100000|| |- ||30||2619||OT₃₄₂₀₅<br>I0₂₄₆₀₈D<br>5₄₈₈₂J<br>C0₁₀₂₂1<br>M0₅₄₇SS7<br>M₂₄₁QB<br>AN₂₀₆<br>50₁₆₄B<br>J₁₅₃QJ<br>J₉₄QQJ||34206<br>24610<br>4883<br>1024<br>551<br>243<br>207<br>166<br>155<br>97||50527<br>36352<br>7213<br>1513<br>814<br>359<br>306<br>245<br>229<br>144||25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1<br>18×30²⁴⁶⁰⁹+13<br>(5×30⁴⁸⁸³+401)/29<br>12×30¹⁰²³+1<br>22×30⁵⁵⁰+26047<br>(22×30²⁴³+3139)/29<br>(313×30²⁰⁶−23)/29<br>5×30¹⁶⁵+11<br>(19×30¹⁵⁵+6071)/29<br>(19×30⁹⁷+188771)/29||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002356282476&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409109&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409165&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000800812865&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593967511&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327649423&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000785448736&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593407988&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593408295&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327651073&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002356282476&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409109&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409165&base=30<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||31||569323\~569400||2IIF₉₁₈₀₅<br>B0₈₈₃₀₉APO9<br>J0T₇₇₅₁₆<br>J090₇₇₁₂₈NNN<br>D₆₉₈₆₁QO<br>9MH0₆₈₆₃₇D<br>J₆₇₁₆₂D<br>N0₆₆₉₇₁32P<br>DDDQ0₆₄₀₈₈TD<br>U₆₃₈₆₁CM3||91808<br>88314<br>77518<br>77134<br>69863<br>68641<br>67163<br>66975<br>64094<br>63864||136918<br>131708<br>115608<br>115035<br>104191<br>102369<br>100165<br>99884<br>95587<br>95245||(4997×31⁹¹⁸⁰⁵−1)/2<br>11×31⁸⁸³¹³+322688<br>(17699×31⁷⁷⁵¹⁶−29)/30<br>18268×31⁷⁷¹³¹+22839<br>(13×31⁶⁹⁸⁶³+12407)/30<br>9348×31⁶⁸⁶³⁸+13<br>(19×31⁶⁷¹⁶³−199)/30<br>23×31⁶⁶⁹⁷⁴+2970<br>400205×31⁶⁴⁰⁹⁰+912<br>31⁶³⁸⁶⁴−17574||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050395732&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050397309&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050398940&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050400178&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965878559&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965875678&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965873668&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965870538&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965868103&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965865343&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050395732&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050397309&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050398940&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050400178&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965878559&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965875678&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965873668&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965870538&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965868103&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965865343&base=31<nowiki/>||77||100000|| |- ||32||168882\~169002||V₉₉₅₈₃63<br>6₈₉₀₇₄AF<br>8₇₇₇₀₀H<br>Q₇₇₄₀₁EQQQ3<br>8₇₇₂₄₉3<br>JM₇₆₀₂₈L<br>E₇₂₉₁₉IL<br>B0₆₇₆₈₀CB<br>GK₆₆₀₇₆F<br>KN₆₅₀₂₂||99585<br>89076<br>77701<br>77406<br>77250<br>76030<br>72921<br>67683<br>66078<br>65023||149891<br>134073<br>116952<br>116508<br>116273<br>114437<br>109757<br>101873<br>99458<br>97870||32⁹⁹⁵⁸⁵−829<br>(6×32⁸⁹⁰⁷⁶+4241)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷⁷⁰¹+271)/31<br>(26×32⁷⁷⁴⁰⁶−390071011)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷²⁵⁰−163)/31<br>(611×32⁷⁶⁰²⁹−53)/31<br>(14×32⁷²⁹²¹+4171)/31<br>11×32⁶⁷⁶⁸²+395<br>(516×32⁶⁶⁰⁷⁷−175)/31<br>(643×32⁶⁵⁰²²−23)/31||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514892191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514897129&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514901700&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514915338&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514918574&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514922523&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654373&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654467&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654632&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654952&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514892191&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514897129&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514901700&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514915338&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514918574&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514922523&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654373&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654467&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654632&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654952&base=32<nowiki/>||120||100000|| |- ||33||280012\~280093||DP₉₅₀₉₃M5<br>HJ0₉₄₂₉₅J<br>90₉₃₅₉₇Q<br>9F0₉₃₁₅₇N<br>7₈₉₄₄₉333H<br>K3₈₀₇₅₁6K<br>D₈₀₁₀₇9UD<br>VFU₇₂₂₀₄FK<br>J₆₈₇₁₅2BJ<br>DF0₆₈₃₆₇J||95096<br>94298<br>93599<br>93160<br>89453<br>80754<br>80110<br>72208<br>68718<br>68370||144405<br>143193<br>142131<br>141465<br>135835<br>122626<br>121648<br>109649<br>104350<br>103821||(441×33⁹⁵⁰⁹⁵−3833)/32<br>580×33⁹⁴²⁹⁶+19<br>9×33⁹³⁵⁹⁸+26<br>312×33⁹³¹⁵⁸+23<br>(7×33⁸⁹⁴⁵³−4743239)/32<br>(643×33⁸⁰⁷⁵³+3709)/32<br>(13×33⁸⁰¹¹⁰−121453)/32<br>(16623×33⁷²²⁰⁶−8095)/16<br>(19×33⁶⁸⁷¹⁸−600883)/32<br>444×33⁶⁸³⁶⁸+19||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652348775&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652362811&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652375073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652389776&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652430746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652446200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652461592&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614764298&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614770536&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614784274&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652348775&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652362811&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652375073&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652389776&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652430746&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652446200&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652461592&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614764298&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614770536&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614784274&base=33<nowiki/>||81||100000|| |- ||34||184785\~184832||GFGC₉₉₉₉₆5<br>90₉₇₉₅₀FJ<br>NM0₈₅₂₁₈KX<br>F₈₃₁₈₉H2HP<br>P₇₉₄₄₁444P<br>6₇₇₀₂₇8X<br>XQIQ₇₂₂₄₁D<br>T₆₆₅₃₀IF<br>4₆₆₁₅₂B<br>2EEC₆₆₀₃₉7||100000<br>97953<br>85222<br>83193<br>79445<br>77029<br>72245<br>66532<br>66153<br>66043||153148<br>150013<br>130516<br>127408<br>121669<br>117968<br>110642<br>101893<br>101312<br>101143||(209246×34⁹⁹⁹⁹⁷−81)/11<br>9×34⁹⁷⁹⁵²+529<br>804×34⁸⁵²²⁰+713<br>(5×34⁸³¹⁹³+700233)/11<br>(25×34⁷⁹⁴⁴⁵−28062367)/33<br>(2×34⁷⁷⁰²⁹+1043)/11<br>(1288676×34⁷²²⁴²−455)/33<br>(29×34⁶⁶⁵³²−12833)/33<br>(4×34⁶⁶¹⁵³+227)/33<br>(30826×34⁶⁶⁰⁴⁰−59)/11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702891268&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702894713&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702900996&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702910376&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702913746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702918600&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399656529&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399657696&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399658651&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399659716&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702891268&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702894713&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702900996&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702910376&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702913746&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702918600&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399656529&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399657696&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399658651&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399659716&base=34<nowiki/>||47||100000|| |- ||35||720002\~720062||N0N₉₉₉₇₁9<br>V0₈₃₆₆₉E73<br>N₈₁₅₆₃K7N<br>BJ0₈₁₂₇₉N<br>J0₈₀₀₆₂FUH<br>43V₇₉₇₅₄<br>9₇₆₆₀₀K3<br>LB₇₁₃₆₆PB<br>Q₆₄₁₅₀H<br>50₆₃₃₉₇5R||99974<br>83673<br>81566<br>81282<br>80066<br>79756<br>76602<br>71369<br>64151<br>63400||154367<br>129197<br>125944<br>125505<br>123628<br>123148<br>118279<br>110199<br>99054<br>97894||(27393×35⁹⁹⁹⁷²−499)/34<br>31×35⁸³⁶⁷²+17398<br>(23×35⁸¹⁵⁶⁶−144013)/34<br>404×35⁸¹²⁸⁰+23<br>19×35⁸⁰⁰⁶⁵+19442<br>(4893×35⁷⁹⁷⁵⁴−31)/34<br>(9×35⁷⁶⁶⁰²+12877)/34<br>(725×35⁷¹³⁶⁸+16649)/34<br>(13×35⁶⁴¹⁵¹−166)/17<br>5×35⁶³³⁹⁹+202||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248342445&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248353306&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248375642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248397018&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248412468&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248418540&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248423670&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192119974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192126630&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192129294&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248342445&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248353306&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248375642&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248397018&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248412468&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248418540&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248423670&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192119974&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192126630&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192129294&base=35<nowiki/>||60||100000|| |- ||36||35286\~35290||P₈₁₉₉₃SZ<br>S0₇₅₀₀₇8H<br>7K₂₆₅₆₇Z<br>J₁₀₁₁₇LJ<br>VL0₇₂₅₈J<br>EO0₆₁₇₇V<br>FZ₅₇₇₇3P<br>T09₄₆₁₈1<br>RY₄₅₆₂H<br>OZ₃₉₃₂AZ||81995<br>75010<br>26569<br>10119<br>7261<br>6180<br>5780<br>4621<br>4564<br>3935||127609<br>116739<br>41349<br>15748<br>11301<br>9618<br>8996<br>7192<br>7103<br>6124||(5×36⁸¹⁹⁹⁵+821)/7<br>28×36⁷⁵⁰⁰⁹+305<br>(53×36²⁶⁵⁶⁸+101)/7<br>(19×36¹⁰¹¹⁹+2501)/35<br>1137×36⁷²⁵⁹+19<br>528×36⁶¹⁷⁸+31<br>16×36⁵⁷⁷⁹−1163<br>(36549×36⁴⁶¹⁹−289)/35<br>(979×36⁴⁵⁶³−629)/35<br>25×36³⁹³⁴−901||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002394962083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004020085177&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003896952461&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362491&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362489&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362488&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362485&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840634476&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476&base=36<nowiki/>||4||200000|| |} == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] 386nryrqko74hdw0iigg7l5gzjov7lk 2819449 2819448 2026-07-26T14:50:16Z Athene241 3100061 /* Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ b ≤ 36 */ 2819449 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s) By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both "numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''" and "length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''" are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'' (references: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjecture-reserves.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjecture-reserves.htm), in fact, Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' and the Riesel problem base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' or the Riesel problem base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068), ''b''^''n''+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101), (''b''^''n''+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for bases ''b'' with ''sqrt''(''b'') prime: https://oeis.org/A065507), ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404), 2×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624), 2×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591), ''b''^''n''+2 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067), ''b''^''n''−2 (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139), ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179), ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435)): Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0? Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19^''n''−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19^''n''/2−1) × (2×19^''n''/2+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime). == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11] Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13] Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14] Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15] Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16] Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18] Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20] Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22] Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23] Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24] Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25] Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26] Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27] Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28] Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29] Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30] Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31] Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32] Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33] Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34] Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35] Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36] == Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 == {|class="wikitable" ||''b''||number of primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b''||base-''b'' form of the top 10 known primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b'' (write "''d''_''n''" if there are 5 or more (''n'') consecutive same digits ''d'')||length of the top 10 known primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b''||length of the top 10 known primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b'' in decimal||algebraic ((''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)) form of the top 10 known primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b''||''factordb'' entry of the top 10 known primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b''||the top 10 known primes (or probable prime, which is a minimal prime assuming its primality) in the Athena problem base ''b'' written in base ''b'' (use lower case letters instead of upper case letters)||number of left families in the Athena problem base ''b'' (all of these left families are linear families)||searching limit of length for the left families in the Athena problem base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the left families in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)|| |- ||2||1||11||2||1||3||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3&base=2||0||–|| |- ||3||3||111<br>21<br>12||3<br>2<br>2||2<br>1<br>1||13<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=3<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||4||5||221<br>31<br>23<br>13<br>11||3<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||2<br>2<br>2<br>1<br>1||41<br>13<br>11<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=41&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=4<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||5||22||10₉₃13<br>300031<br>44441<br>33331<br>33001<br>30301<br>14444<br>10103<br>3101<br>414||96<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4<br>3||67<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>3<br>3<br>3||5⁹⁵+8<br>9391<br>3121<br>2341<br>2251<br>1951<br>1249<br>653<br>401<br>109||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9391&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2341&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2251&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1951&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1249&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=653&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=401&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=109&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109&base=5<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||6||11||40041<br>4441<br>4401<br>51<br>45<br>35<br>31<br>25<br>21<br>15||5<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||4<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||5209<br>1033<br>1009<br>31<br>29<br>23<br>19<br>17<br>13<br>11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5209&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1033&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1009&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=31&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=29&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=23&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=19&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=17&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5209&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1033&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1009&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=31&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=29&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=23&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=19&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=17&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=6<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||7||71||3₁₆1<br>510₇1<br>3₆01<br>1100021<br>531101<br>351101<br>300053<br>150001<br>100121<br>40054||17<br>10<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>5||15<br>9<br>7<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4||(7¹⁷−5)/2<br>36×7⁸+1<br>(7⁸−47)/2<br>134471<br>91631<br>62819<br>50459<br>28813<br>16871<br>9643||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=116315256993601&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=207532837&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2882377&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=134471&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=91631&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=62819&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=50459&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=28813&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=16871&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9643&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=116315256993601&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=207532837&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2882377&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=134471&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=91631&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=62819&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=50459&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=28813&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=16871&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9643&base=7<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||8||75||4₂₂₀7<br>5₁₃25<br>7₁₂1<br>77774₆1<br>74₇1<br>4₈1<br>5₅025<br>5550525<br>5500525<br>4₅77||221<br>15<br>13<br>11<br>9<br>9<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||200<br>14<br>12<br>10<br>9<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||(4×8²²¹+17)/7<br>(5×8¹⁵−173)/7<br>8¹³−7<br>(28669×8⁷−25)/7<br>(53×8⁸−25)/7<br>(4×8⁹−25)/7<br>(5×8⁸−2413)/7<br>1495381<br>1474901<br>(4×8⁷+185)/7||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=25131694349141&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=549755813881&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=8589035809&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=127027489&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=76695841&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11983381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1495381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1474901&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1198399&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000416605822&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=25131694349141&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=549755813881&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=8589035809&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=127027489&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=76695841&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11983381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1495381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1474901&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1198399&base=8<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||9||151||30₁₁₅₈11<br>27₆₈₆07<br>76₃₂₉2<br>561₃₆<br>10₂₅57<br>30₂₀51<br>8₁₉335<br>727₁₅07<br>51₁₃61<br>10₁₁507||1161<br>689<br>331<br>38<br>28<br>23<br>22<br>19<br>16<br>15||1108<br>657<br>316<br>37<br>26<br>22<br>21<br>19<br>16<br>14||3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10<br>(23×9⁶⁸⁸−511)/8<br>(31×9³³⁰−19)/4<br>(409×9³⁶−1)/8<br>9²⁷+52<br>3×9²²+46<br>9²²−454<br>(527×9¹⁷−511)/8<br>(41×9¹⁵+359)/8<br>9¹⁴+412||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001554010824&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002512830927&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000032261811&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495736583&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003446800389&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1055192051985121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22876792455373&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002376318423&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495467486&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002359003642&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001554010824&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002512830927&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000032261811&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495736583&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003446800389&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1055192051985121&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22876792455373&base=9<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- 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|- 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|- ||21||13386\~13394||27₁₈₄₄₉₉9D<br>F9₁₇₈₇₇₁D<br>2FC₁₁₂₀₂₂A<br>7₁₀₈₄₅₀ID<br>40₄₇₃₃₃9G<br>B90₄₅₀₁₉E5<br>HD₃₇₄₁₄<br>BD₃₅₀₂₇B<br>990₃₃₂₃₉99H<br>5₃₀₆₀₆FEK||184502<br>178773<br>112025<br>108452<br>47336<br>45023<br>37415<br>35029<br>33244<br>30609||243952<br>236377<br>148121<br>143397<br>62588<br>59531<br>49471<br>46316<br>43956<br>40472||(47×21¹⁸⁴⁵⁰¹+953)/20<br>(309×21¹⁷⁸⁷⁷²+71)/20<br>(288×21¹¹²⁰²³−13)/5<br>(7×21¹⁰⁸⁴⁵²+4733)/20<br>4×21⁴⁷³³⁵+205<br>240×21⁴⁵⁰²¹+299<br>(353×21³⁷⁴¹⁴−13)/20<br>(233×21³⁵⁰²⁸−53)/20<br>198×21³³²⁴²+4175<br>(21³⁰⁶⁰⁹+18455)/4||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700600990&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700596669&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700593358&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700586183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118331&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110311&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110479&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110718&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110944&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996111130&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700600990&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700596669&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700593358&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700586183&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118331&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110311&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110479&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110718&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110944&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996111130&base=21<nowiki/>||8||200000|| |- ||22||8003||BK₂₂₀₀₁5<br>7₃₈₁₅2L<br>L₂₃₈₅KE7<br>7₉₅₉K7<br>J0₇₆₇IGGJ<br>K0₇₆₀EC1<br>I₆₂₆AF<br>E60₄₉₆L<br>L₄₈₃G3<br>L0₄₅₄B63||22003<br>3817<br>2388<br>961<br>772<br>764<br>628<br>499<br>485<br>458||29538<br>5124<br>3206<br>1290<br>1037<br>1026<br>843<br>670<br>652<br>615||(251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21<br>(22³⁸¹⁷−289)/3<br>22²³⁸⁸−653<br>(22⁹⁶¹+857)/3<br>19×22⁷⁷¹+199779<br>20×22⁷⁶³+7041<br>(6×22⁶²⁸−1259)/7<br>314×22⁴⁹⁷+21<br>22⁴⁸⁵−129<br>21×22⁴⁵⁷+5459||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003594696838&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591359839&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591360774&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591361817&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591362567&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724415&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724334&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632703239&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591364730&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591365331&base=22<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||23||65178\~65265||B0₉₃₀₄₆FB<br>L₈₆₄₄₄D<br>AJ₈₁₀₆₅4<br>20₇₃₅₆₀98<br>J₆₈₂₁₇G4<br>D70₆₆₇₇₀B<br>5F₆₂₃₄₀6<br>A7M7₆₁₅₃₂<br>B30₆₁₁₃₆5<br>EJ₅₂₁₆₉||93049<br>86445<br>81067<br>73563<br>68219<br>66773<br>62342<br>61535<br>61139<br>52170||126708<br>117715<br>110391<br>100172<br>92896<br>90927<br>84893<br>83794<br>83255<br>71042||11×23⁹³⁰⁴⁸+356<br>(21×23⁸⁶⁴⁴⁵−197)/22<br>(239×23⁸¹⁰⁶⁶−349)/22<br>2×23⁷³⁵⁶²+215<br>(19×23⁶⁸²¹⁹−1867)/22<br>306×23⁶⁶⁷⁷¹+11<br>(125×23⁶²³⁴¹−213)/22<br>(120413×23⁶¹⁵³²−7)/22<br>256×23⁶¹¹³⁷+5<br>(327×23⁵²¹⁶⁹−19)/22||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691540361&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691546739&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548070&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548569&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549462&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549803&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691551005&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691556967&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557548&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691540361&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691546739&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548070&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548569&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549462&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549803&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691551005&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691556967&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557254&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557548&base=23<nowiki/>||87||100000|| |- ||24||3409||N00N₈₁₂₉LN<br>88N₅₉₅₁<br>A0₂₉₅₁8ID<br>D₂₆₉₈LD<br>N₂₆₄₄LLN<br>BC0₃₃₁B<br>20₃₁₃7<br>C7₂₉₈<br>D0₂₅₉KKD<br>I0₂₄₁I5||8134<br>5953<br>2955<br>2700<br>2647<br>334<br>315<br>299<br>263<br>244||11227<br>8216<br>4079<br>3727<br>3654<br>461<br>434<br>413<br>363<br>337||13249×24⁸¹³¹−49<br>201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1<br>10×24²⁹⁵⁴+5053<br>(13×24²⁷⁰⁰+4403)/23<br>24²⁶⁴⁷−1201<br>276×24³³²+11<br>2×24³¹⁴+7<br>(283×24²⁹⁸−7)/23<br>13×24²⁶²+12013<br>18×24²⁴³+437||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593391606&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593275880&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269654&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269876&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270089&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633359842&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355610241&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002326181235&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270725&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633360037&base=24<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||25||133639~133724||E₉₈₃₉₆FOO<br>1J710₉₆₂₇₂1<br>NB0₈₅₅₉₈5NH<br>D70₈₁₅₈₁JJ7<br>F0₈₀₀₅₄HL<br>J010₇₅₉₄₃E7<br>K₆₇₇₇₁5I<br>LO₆₆₃₇₇KC<br>KJD0₆₃₃₉₉1<br>70₆₀₈₉₂D711||98399<br>96277<br>85603<br>81586<br>80057<br>75948<br>67773<br>66380<br>63403<br>60897||137556<br>134589<br>119668<br>114053<br>111915<br>106171<br>94743<br>92796<br>88634<br>85130||(7×25⁹⁸³⁹⁹+10613)/12<br>27676×25⁹⁶²⁷³+1<br>586×25⁸⁵⁶⁰¹+3717<br>332×25⁸¹⁵⁸⁴+12357<br>15×25⁸⁰⁰⁵⁶+446<br>11876×25⁷⁵⁹⁴⁵+357<br>(5×25⁶⁷⁷⁷³−2267)/6<br>22×25⁶⁶³⁷⁹−113<br>12988×25⁶³⁴⁰⁰+1<br>7×25⁶⁰⁸⁹⁶+207526||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118215&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003983674902&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909706420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909733266&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909750102&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909770736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986394&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118270&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986664&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986798&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118215&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003983674902&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909706420&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909733266&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909750102&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909770736&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986394&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118270&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986664&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986798&base=25<nowiki/>||85||100000|| |- ||26||25256\~25259||85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B<br>M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB<br>J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB<br>6K₂₃₃₀₀5<br>LD0₂₀₉₇₅7<br>7₂₀₂₇₉OL<br>5₁₉₃₉₁6F<br>9GDK₁₅₉₂₀P<br>M₈₇₇₂P<br>K0₄₃₆₄I5||197063<br>61190<br>44307<br>23302<br>20978<br>20281<br>19393<br>15924<br>8773<br>4367||278839<br>86583<br>62694<br>32972<br>29684<br>28697<br>27440<br>22532<br>12414<br>6180||(5347×26¹⁹⁷⁰⁶¹−297)/25<br>22×26⁶¹¹⁸⁹+1649<br>19×26⁴⁴³⁰⁶+13843<br>(34×26²³³⁰¹−79)/5<br>559×26²⁰⁹⁷⁶+7<br>(7×26²⁰²⁸¹+11393)/25<br>(26¹⁹³⁹³+179)/5<br>(32569×26¹⁵⁹²¹+21)/5<br>(22×26⁸⁷⁷³+53)/25<br>20×26⁴³⁶⁶+473||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008573990023&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968169875&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968156595&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628658&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628605&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151202&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850155316&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000758011195&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002634136508&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008573990023&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968169875&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968156595&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628745&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628658&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628605&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151202&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850155316&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000758011195&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002634136508&base=26<nowiki/>||3||200000|| |- ||27||102852~102896||CA0F₈₈₈₈₃A<br>GNN0₇₈₇₉₅N<br>O44L₆₆₀₁₆7<br>NJ0₆₄₃₆₉H<br>ME₄₉₆₄₀9G<br>PH0₄₇₈₉₀1<br>QF₄₇₁₆₅AF5<br>J0₄₀₇₉₁PD<br>510₃₉₁₆₄I07<br>NGN0₃₆₃₂₉N||88887<br>78799<br>66020<br>64372<br>49643<br>47893<br>47169<br>40794<br>39169<br>36333||127230<br>112790<br>94499<br>92140<br>71058<br>68553<br>67516<br>58391<br>56065<br>52006||(234483×27⁸⁸⁸⁸⁴−145)/26<br>12308×27⁷⁸⁷⁹⁶+23<br>(457829×27⁶⁶⁰¹⁷−385)/26<br>640×27⁶⁴³⁷⁰+17<br>(293×27⁴⁹⁶⁴²−1736)/13<br>692×27⁴⁷⁸⁹¹+1<br>(691×27⁴⁷¹⁶⁸−95045)/26<br>19×27⁴⁰⁷⁹³+688<br>136×27³⁹¹⁶⁷+13129<br>17222×27³⁶³³⁰+23||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118233&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004681348398&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374140861&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374138999&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819229859&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102754118&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102755880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102758254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102875088&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004103372866&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118233&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004681348398&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374140861&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374138999&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819229859&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102754118&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102755880&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102758254&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102875088&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004103372866&base=27<nowiki/>||44||100000|| |- ||28||25528\~25529||O4O₉₄₅₃₅9<br>5OA₃₁₂₃₈F<br>N6₂₄₀₅₁LR<br>D0₅₂₆₇77D<br>QO₄₂₃₉69<br>5₃₇₄₆8P<br>G0₁₈₉₉AN<br>A₁₄₂₃6F<br>5I₁₃₇₀F<br>5₁₃₃₂P8P||94538<br>31241<br>24054<br>5271<br>4242<br>3748<br>1902<br>1425<br>1372<br>1335||136812<br>45210<br>34810<br>7628<br>6139<br>5424<br>2753<br>2062<br>1985<br>1932||(6092×28⁹⁴⁵³⁶−143)/9<br>(4438×28³¹²³⁹+125)/27<br>(209×28²⁴⁰⁵³+3967)/9<br>13×28⁵²⁷⁰+5697<br>(242×28⁴²⁴¹−4679)/9<br>(5×28³⁷⁴⁸+2803)/27<br>16×28¹⁹⁰¹+303<br>(10×28¹⁴²⁵−2899)/27<br>(17×28¹³⁷¹−11)/3<br>(5×28¹³³⁵+426163)/27||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118231&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003880455200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003879667576&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839934&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161973&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839947&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161972&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161965&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118231&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003880455200&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003879667576&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151420&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839934&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161974&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161973&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839947&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161972&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161965&base=28<nowiki/>||1||900000|| |- ||29||355242\~355367||830₉₉₃₇₇4<br>GP5J₉₄₉₃₅<br>P05J₉₀₂₈₉<br>BBD0₈₈₈₈₈PB<br>8B₈₅₃₃₃G<br>L0₈₁₅₇₁5955<br>E0₇₇₃₇₂L7B<br>LPC₇₅₁₅₁9<br>JR0₇₄₆₂₂7<br>B₇₄₅₀₁0RP||99380<br>94938<br>90292<br>88893<br>85335<br>81576<br>77376<br>75154<br>74625<br>74504||145333<br>138837<br>132043<br>129997<br>124794<br>119297<br>113155<br>109905<br>109132<br>108955||235×29⁹⁹³⁷⁸+4<br>(397227×29⁹⁴⁹³⁵−19)/28<br>(588859×29⁹⁰²⁸⁹−19)/28<br>9583×29⁸⁸⁸⁹⁰+736<br>(235×29⁸⁵³³⁴+129)/14<br>21×29⁸¹⁵⁷⁵+129664<br>14×29⁷⁷³⁷⁵+17875<br>(4441×29⁷⁵¹⁵²−24)/7<br>578×29⁷⁴⁶²³+7<br>(11×29⁷⁴⁵⁰⁴−245655)/28||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253882372&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253893542&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253899083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253909183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253921388&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253925955&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253931446&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118236&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253934219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253936120&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253882372&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253893542&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253899083&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253909183&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253921388&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253925955&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253931446&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118236&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253934219&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253936120&base=29<nowiki/>||125||100000|| |- ||30||2619||OT₃₄₂₀₅<br>I0₂₄₆₀₈D<br>5₄₈₈₂J<br>C0₁₀₂₂1<br>M0₅₄₇SS7<br>M₂₄₁QB<br>AN₂₀₆<br>50₁₆₄B<br>J₁₅₃QJ<br>J₉₄QQJ||34206<br>24610<br>4883<br>1024<br>551<br>243<br>207<br>166<br>155<br>97||50527<br>36352<br>7213<br>1513<br>814<br>359<br>306<br>245<br>229<br>144||25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1<br>18×30²⁴⁶⁰⁹+13<br>(5×30⁴⁸⁸³+401)/29<br>12×30¹⁰²³+1<br>22×30⁵⁵⁰+26047<br>(22×30²⁴³+3139)/29<br>(313×30²⁰⁶−23)/29<br>5×30¹⁶⁵+11<br>(19×30¹⁵⁵+6071)/29<br>(19×30⁹⁷+188771)/29||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002356282476&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409109&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409165&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000800812865&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593967511&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327649423&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000785448736&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593407988&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593408295&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327651073&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002356282476&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409109&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409165&base=30<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||31||569323\~569400||2IIF₉₁₈₀₅<br>B0₈₈₃₀₉APO9<br>J0T₇₇₅₁₆<br>J090₇₇₁₂₈NNN<br>D₆₉₈₆₁QO<br>9MH0₆₈₆₃₇D<br>J₆₇₁₆₂D<br>N0₆₆₉₇₁32P<br>DDDQ0₆₄₀₈₈TD<br>U₆₃₈₆₁CM3||91808<br>88314<br>77518<br>77134<br>69863<br>68641<br>67163<br>66975<br>64094<br>63864||136918<br>131708<br>115608<br>115035<br>104191<br>102369<br>100165<br>99884<br>95587<br>95245||(4997×31⁹¹⁸⁰⁵−1)/2<br>11×31⁸⁸³¹³+322688<br>(17699×31⁷⁷⁵¹⁶−29)/30<br>18268×31⁷⁷¹³¹+22839<br>(13×31⁶⁹⁸⁶³+12407)/30<br>9348×31⁶⁸⁶³⁸+13<br>(19×31⁶⁷¹⁶³−199)/30<br>23×31⁶⁶⁹⁷⁴+2970<br>400205×31⁶⁴⁰⁹⁰+912<br>31⁶³⁸⁶⁴−17574||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050395732&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050397309&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050398940&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050400178&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965878559&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965875678&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965873668&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965870538&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965868103&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965865343&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050395732&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050397309&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050398940&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050400178&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965878559&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965875678&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965873668&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965870538&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965868103&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965865343&base=31<nowiki/>||77||100000|| |- ||32||168882\~169002||V₉₉₅₈₃63<br>6₈₉₀₇₄AF<br>8₇₇₇₀₀H<br>Q₇₇₄₀₁EQQQ3<br>8₇₇₂₄₉3<br>JM₇₆₀₂₈L<br>E₇₂₉₁₉IL<br>B0₆₇₆₈₀CB<br>GK₆₆₀₇₆F<br>KN₆₅₀₂₂||99585<br>89076<br>77701<br>77406<br>77250<br>76030<br>72921<br>67683<br>66078<br>65023||149891<br>134073<br>116952<br>116508<br>116273<br>114437<br>109757<br>101873<br>99458<br>97870||32⁹⁹⁵⁸⁵−829<br>(6×32⁸⁹⁰⁷⁶+4241)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷⁷⁰¹+271)/31<br>(26×32⁷⁷⁴⁰⁶−390071011)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷²⁵⁰−163)/31<br>(611×32⁷⁶⁰²⁹−53)/31<br>(14×32⁷²⁹²¹+4171)/31<br>11×32⁶⁷⁶⁸²+395<br>(516×32⁶⁶⁰⁷⁷−175)/31<br>(643×32⁶⁵⁰²²−23)/31||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514892191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514897129&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514901700&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514915338&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514918574&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514922523&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654373&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654467&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654632&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654952&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514892191&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514897129&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514901700&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514915338&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514918574&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514922523&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654373&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654467&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654632&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654952&base=32<nowiki/>||120||100000|| |- ||33||280012\~280093||DP₉₅₀₉₃M5<br>HJ0₉₄₂₉₅J<br>90₉₃₅₉₇Q<br>9F0₉₃₁₅₇N<br>7₈₉₄₄₉333H<br>K3₈₀₇₅₁6K<br>D₈₀₁₀₇9UD<br>VFU₇₂₂₀₄FK<br>J₆₈₇₁₅2BJ<br>DF0₆₈₃₆₇J||95096<br>94298<br>93599<br>93160<br>89453<br>80754<br>80110<br>72208<br>68718<br>68370||144405<br>143193<br>142131<br>141465<br>135835<br>122626<br>121648<br>109649<br>104350<br>103821||(441×33⁹⁵⁰⁹⁵−3833)/32<br>580×33⁹⁴²⁹⁶+19<br>9×33⁹³⁵⁹⁸+26<br>312×33⁹³¹⁵⁸+23<br>(7×33⁸⁹⁴⁵³−4743239)/32<br>(643×33⁸⁰⁷⁵³+3709)/32<br>(13×33⁸⁰¹¹⁰−121453)/32<br>(16623×33⁷²²⁰⁶−8095)/16<br>(19×33⁶⁸⁷¹⁸−600883)/32<br>444×33⁶⁸³⁶⁸+19||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652348775&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652362811&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652375073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652389776&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652430746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652446200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652461592&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614764298&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614770536&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614784274&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652348775&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652362811&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652375073&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652389776&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652430746&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652446200&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652461592&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614764298&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614770536&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614784274&base=33<nowiki/>||81||100000|| |- ||34||184785\~184832||GFGC₉₉₉₉₆5<br>90₉₇₉₅₀FJ<br>NM0₈₅₂₁₈KX<br>F₈₃₁₈₉H2HP<br>P₇₉₄₄₁444P<br>6₇₇₀₂₇8X<br>XQIQ₇₂₂₄₁D<br>T₆₆₅₃₀IF<br>4₆₆₁₅₂B<br>2EEC₆₆₀₃₉7||100000<br>97953<br>85222<br>83193<br>79445<br>77029<br>72245<br>66532<br>66153<br>66043||153148<br>150013<br>130516<br>127408<br>121669<br>117968<br>110642<br>101893<br>101312<br>101143||(209246×34⁹⁹⁹⁹⁷−81)/11<br>9×34⁹⁷⁹⁵²+529<br>804×34⁸⁵²²⁰+713<br>(5×34⁸³¹⁹³+700233)/11<br>(25×34⁷⁹⁴⁴⁵−28062367)/33<br>(2×34⁷⁷⁰²⁹+1043)/11<br>(1288676×34⁷²²⁴²−455)/33<br>(29×34⁶⁶⁵³²−12833)/33<br>(4×34⁶⁶¹⁵³+227)/33<br>(30826×34⁶⁶⁰⁴⁰−59)/11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702891268&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702894713&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702900996&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702910376&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702913746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702918600&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399656529&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399657696&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399658651&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399659716&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702891268&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702894713&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702900996&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702910376&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702913746&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702918600&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399656529&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399657696&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399658651&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399659716&base=34<nowiki/>||47||100000|| |- ||35||720002\~720062||N0N₉₉₉₇₁9<br>V0₈₃₆₆₉E73<br>N₈₁₅₆₃K7N<br>BJ0₈₁₂₇₉N<br>J0₈₀₀₆₂FUH<br>43V₇₉₇₅₄<br>9₇₆₆₀₀K3<br>LB₇₁₃₆₆PB<br>Q₆₄₁₅₀H<br>50₆₃₃₉₇5R||99974<br>83673<br>81566<br>81282<br>80066<br>79756<br>76602<br>71369<br>64151<br>63400||154367<br>129197<br>125944<br>125505<br>123628<br>123148<br>118279<br>110199<br>99054<br>97894||(27393×35⁹⁹⁹⁷²−499)/34<br>31×35⁸³⁶⁷²+17398<br>(23×35⁸¹⁵⁶⁶−144013)/34<br>404×35⁸¹²⁸⁰+23<br>19×35⁸⁰⁰⁶⁵+19442<br>(4893×35⁷⁹⁷⁵⁴−31)/34<br>(9×35⁷⁶⁶⁰²+12877)/34<br>(725×35⁷¹³⁶⁸+16649)/34<br>(13×35⁶⁴¹⁵¹−166)/17<br>5×35⁶³³⁹⁹+202||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248342445&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248353306&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248375642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248397018&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248412468&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248418540&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248423670&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192119974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192126630&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192129294&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248342445&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248353306&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248375642&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248397018&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248412468&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248418540&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248423670&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192119974&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192126630&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192129294&base=35<nowiki/>||60||100000|| |- ||36||35286\~35290||P₈₁₉₉₃SZ<br>S0₇₅₀₀₇8H<br>7K₂₆₅₆₇Z<br>J₁₀₁₁₇LJ<br>VL0₇₂₅₈J<br>EO0₆₁₇₇V<br>FZ₅₇₇₇3P<br>T09₄₆₁₈1<br>RY₄₅₆₂H<br>OZ₃₉₃₂AZ||81995<br>75010<br>26569<br>10119<br>7261<br>6180<br>5780<br>4621<br>4564<br>3935||127609<br>116739<br>41349<br>15748<br>11301<br>9618<br>8996<br>7192<br>7103<br>6124||(5×36⁸¹⁹⁹⁵+821)/7<br>28×36⁷⁵⁰⁰⁹+305<br>(53×36²⁶⁵⁶⁸+101)/7<br>(19×36¹⁰¹¹⁹+2501)/35<br>1137×36⁷²⁵⁹+19<br>528×36⁶¹⁷⁸+31<br>16×36⁵⁷⁷⁹−1163<br>(36549×36⁴⁶¹⁹−289)/35<br>(979×36⁴⁵⁶³−629)/35<br>25×36³⁹³⁴−901||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002394962083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004020085177&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003896952461&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362491&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362489&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362488&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362485&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840634476&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476&base=36<nowiki/>||4||200000|| |} == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] a51kokno83eo6k83hcq11qr478llj7c 0 330134 2819496 2818515 2026-07-27T11:09:17Z CorraleH 2903442 2819496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Mónica | last1 = Bonilla | orcid1 = 0000-0002-4594-0093 | affiliation1 = Wikimedia Colombia | first2 = Johana | last2 = Botero | orcid2 = 0009-0006-0484-6291 | affiliation2 = Wikimedia Colombia | first3 = Bernardo | last3 = Caycedo | orcid3 = 0009-0008-1861-5034 | affiliation3 = Wikimedia Colombia | first4 = Manuel | last4 = Franco-Avellaneda | orcid4 = 0000-0002-0895-8219 | affiliation4 = Wikimedia Colombia | first5 = Nathaly | last5 = Montoya | orcid5 = 0009-0004-3539-5599 | affiliation5 = Wikimedia Colombia | submitted = 2025-11-14 | published = 2026-07-23 | correspondence1 = | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | w1 = | license = {{CC-BY-SA work}} | abstract = }} [[File:Banner wikiconf wiki.png|thumb|alt=Wikiconferencia Colombia 2025|Wikiconferencia Colombia 2025|link=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikiconferencia_Colombia_2025|320px]] ==Foreword== The Proceedings of the [[meta:Wikiconferencia_Colombia_2025|WikiConf Colombia 2025]], held on November 14, 2025, in Bogotá, Colombia, bring together abstracts dedicated to the study of Wikipedia and other wiki projects as significant phenomena within the contemporary scientific, educational, and information space. Organized by Wikimedia Colombia, with the support of the Wikimedia Foundation, the conference gathered participants from Colombia and abroad and marked an important step in fostering a scholarly community focused on interdisciplinary research of open knowledge and wiki environments. The contributions, published under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International license, reflect a wide range of research topics, including digital commons, free culture, historical memory, biodiversity, and Indigenous languages, while also emphasizing the role of Wikipedia in transforming prevailing digital paradigms and advancing the principles of free culture. WikiConf Colombia 2025 constitutes the annual meeting of the Wikimedia community in Colombia. This year’s edition, held in Bogotá, aims to foster critical discussions on transforming prevailing digital paradigms and advancing the principles of free culture. The conference convenes a diverse range of participants, including local community members, [[meta:Wikimedia Colombia|Wikimedia Colombia]] (WMCO) staff, national scholarship recipients, and guests, to exchange experiences, address emerging challenges, and collaboratively envision more open and participatory futures for the Wikimedia movement in Colombia. The conference seeks to reflect on digital commons as collaborative practices that challenge both the privatization of the digital sphere and uncritical forms of automation. It aims to open a space for imagining freer and more solidaristic futures in which open culture, historical memory, biodiversity, and Indigenous languages occupy a central place. Digital commons are woven through diversity: they emerge in collaboration with Indigenous, Afro-descendant, rural, and urban communities, through the exchange between ancestral knowledge and open, emerging technologies. WikiConf Colombia 2025 serves as a moment of recognition, collective learning, and the creation of new alliances. ==Abstracts== # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario|Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Roundtable: the commons in dispute: sovereignty and free knowledge from Wikimedia|Roundtable: the commons in dispute: sovereignty and free knowledge from Wikimedia]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki - teaching Wayuunaiki with digital media|Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki - teaching Wayuunaiki with digital media]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/How to build a Wikipedia article from zero and not die during the process? a situated experience|How to build a Wikipedia article from zero and not die during the process? a situated experience]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Free metaphor|Free metaphor]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Oral libraries in the midst of a knowledge system based on the written word|Oral libraries in the midst of a knowledge system based on the written word]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Roundtable: the path toward community environmental monitoring|Roundtable: the path toward community environmental monitoring]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Panel: AI and digital commons|Panel: AI and digital commons]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/We are not communists, we are commoners|We are not communists, we are commoners]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Decentralized Web3 governance for the Wikimedia community?|Decentralized Web3 governance for the Wikimedia community?]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/OpenStreetMap and Wikimedia: two worlds full of data that tell stories|OpenStreetMap and Wikimedia: two worlds full of data that tell stories]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Congressional and presidential elections are coming up: what can we do as the Wikimedia Colombia community?|Congressional and presidential elections are coming up: what can we do as the Wikimedia Colombia community?]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Wikimedia in the teaching of phylogenomics in Colombia|Wikimedia in the teaching of phylogenomics in Colombia]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Inclusion and sustainability at Wikimania Nairobi 2025: a narrative|Inclusion and sustainability at Wikimania Nairobi 2025: a narrative]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/#Fracking: tracing climate change disinformation on social media|#Fracking: tracing climate change disinformation on social media]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Roundtable: linguistic diversity and digital fabric|Roundtable: linguistic diversity and digital fabric]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Electoral API: how to transform public information into citizen knowledge? open data for democracy|Electoral API: how to transform public information into citizen knowledge? open data for democracy]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Stories, experiences, and images of the mothers of victims of false positives: process to build the memorial for women belonging to the MAFAPO collective|Stories, experiences, and images of the mothers of victims of false positives: process to build the memorial for women belonging to the MAFAPO collective]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/The river that we are|The river that we are]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Lightning talk: echoes of a mural|Lightning talk: echoes of a mural]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Restrictions and possibilities of Colombia's public (but not) open data|Restrictions and possibilities of Colombia's public (but not) open data]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Co-creation of a translation methodology using Wikibooks|Co-creation of a translation methodology using Wikibooks]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Superchange: the universe where climate heroes are born|Superchange: the universe where climate heroes are born]] # [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Photographic co-creation workshop: self-representation and alterity in Abya Yala|Photographic co-creation workshop: self-representation and alterity in Abya Yala]] <!-- [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Hackathon|Hackathon]] [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Proceedings of the WikiConf Colombia 2025/Poster session|Poster session]] --> 98qenclarjdrciiwwmajmslv4yz8dht 3 330711 2819485 2819187 2026-07-27T08:13:49Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2819485 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome! == Ni! Welcome @[[User:Dnshitobu|Dnshitobu]], let me know if I can lend you a hand. [[User:Solstag|Solstag]] ([[User talk:Solstag|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Solstag|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 July 2026 (UTC) ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Dnshitobu!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:13, 27 July 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} h5l6rbaff0uraza60m39sbc6ayh47p2 0 330748 2819425 2819419 2026-07-26T12:39:44Z Dnshitobu 2955086 updated page 2819425 wikitext text/x-wiki = Computing for Senior High School in Ghana = Welcome to the '''Computing for Senior High School (SHS) in Ghana''' learning resource on Wikiversity. This resource is designed in alignment with the '''National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)''' Standards-Based Curriculum under the Ministry of Education, Ghana. The program provides learners with foundational knowledge, computational thinking skills, practical programming abilities, and an understanding of emerging technologies required for higher education, ICT careers, and the modern global workforce. == Program Structure & Pathways == The Senior High School Computing curriculum spans across SHS 1 to SHS 3, structured around core strands that build progressive technical competency: # '''Computer Architecture & Systems Organisation''' # '''Networks & Data Communication''' # '''Computational Thinking & Programming Logic''' # '''Web Technologies & Digital Design''' # '''Database Management & Information Systems''' # '''Cybersecurity, Ethics & Digital Society''' == Course Level Portals == === [[/one|Computing for Senior High School Year 1]] === Focuses on low-level data representation, computer hardware/software, network architecture, algorithmic problem solving with Python, and basic web layout design. * '''Instructional Duration:''' 24 Weeks * '''Key Highlights:''' Bit patterns, logic gates, CPU machine cycles, Python data structures, sitemaps, and wireframing. === [[/two|Computing for Senior High School Year 2]] === Drives deeper into Boolean algebra, digital logic circuit design, complex data structures, network protocols (OSI model layers), and relational database principles. * '''Key Highlights:''' NAND/NOR logic synthesis, database querying (SQL), OOP basics, and network troubleshooting. === [[/three|Computing for Senior High School Year 3]] === Prepares students for tertiary transition or industry readiness through full-stack project development, cloud computing basics, cybersecurity ethics, and practical software design. * '''Key Highlights:''' Full-stack web application development, algorithm optimization, digital forensics awareness, and capstone projects. == Core Competencies & Values (NaCCA Alignment) == The Ghanaian SHS Computing curriculum is anchored on developing **21st-Century Competencies** and integrating **Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)**: * '''Critical Thinking and Problem Solving (CT):''' Applied through algorithmic design, debugging, and system architecture analysis. * '''Creativity and Innovation (CI):''' Fostered through user interface wireframing, Web prototyping, and practical coding projects. * '''Collaboration and Communication (CC):''' Developed via group laboratory tasks, peer code reviews, and project presentations. * '''Digital Literacy & Cultural Identity:''' Encourages applying computing solutions to local challenges in Ghana while navigating global digital spaces ethically. == Learning Resources & Practical Tools == === Recommended Software & Tools === * '''Programming:''' Python 3.x, IDLE / VS Code * '''Database:''' MySQL / SQLite, phpMyAdmin * '''Web Design:''' HTML5 / CSS3 / JavaScript, Figma or Wireframe.cc for prototyping * '''Simulation & Logic:''' Logisim (for digital logic gates and Boolean circuit design) === Assessment Framework === Assessment follows the **National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF)**: * '''Formative Assessment (60%):''' Practical lab assignments, class projects, quizzes, and collaborative group tasks. * '''Summative Assessment (40%):''' End-of-term examinations and final capstone project evaluation. == References & Official Resources == * '''Ministry of Education / NaCCA (2023).''' ''Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 – 3)''. Accra: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. * '''Ministry of Education / T-TEL (2024).''' ''Teacher and Learner Resource Packs: Senior High School Computing''. Ghana Education Service. * '''National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF).''' NaCCA Official Portal ([https://nacca.gov.gh nacca.gov.gh]). == Community & Contribution == Wikiversity thrives on open collaboration. Educators, students, and open-source advocates are invited to contribute learning modules, lab guides, and exercises tailored for Ghanaian secondary schools. [[Category:Computing]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Secondary Education]] nzbtiw82xlbl3x9t0a8z0zluyvimccy 2819445 2819425 2026-07-26T14:40:03Z Atcovi 276019 project box(es) 2819445 wikitext text/x-wiki {{secondary}} = Computing for Senior High School in Ghana = Welcome to the '''Computing for Senior High School (SHS) in Ghana''' learning resource on Wikiversity. This resource is designed in alignment with the '''National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)''' Standards-Based Curriculum under the Ministry of Education, Ghana. The program provides learners with foundational knowledge, computational thinking skills, practical programming abilities, and an understanding of emerging technologies required for higher education, ICT careers, and the modern global workforce. == Program Structure & Pathways == The Senior High School Computing curriculum spans across SHS 1 to SHS 3, structured around core strands that build progressive technical competency: # '''Computer Architecture & Systems Organisation''' # '''Networks & Data Communication''' # '''Computational Thinking & Programming Logic''' # '''Web Technologies & Digital Design''' # '''Database Management & Information Systems''' # '''Cybersecurity, Ethics & Digital Society''' == Course Level Portals == === [[/one|Computing for Senior High School Year 1]] === Focuses on low-level data representation, computer hardware/software, network architecture, algorithmic problem solving with Python, and basic web layout design. * '''Instructional Duration:''' 24 Weeks * '''Key Highlights:''' Bit patterns, logic gates, CPU machine cycles, Python data structures, sitemaps, and wireframing. === [[/two|Computing for Senior High School Year 2]] === Drives deeper into Boolean algebra, digital logic circuit design, complex data structures, network protocols (OSI model layers), and relational database principles. * '''Key Highlights:''' NAND/NOR logic synthesis, database querying (SQL), OOP basics, and network troubleshooting. === [[/three|Computing for Senior High School Year 3]] === Prepares students for tertiary transition or industry readiness through full-stack project development, cloud computing basics, cybersecurity ethics, and practical software design. * '''Key Highlights:''' Full-stack web application development, algorithm optimization, digital forensics awareness, and capstone projects. == Core Competencies & Values (NaCCA Alignment) == The Ghanaian SHS Computing curriculum is anchored on developing **21st-Century Competencies** and integrating **Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)**: * '''Critical Thinking and Problem Solving (CT):''' Applied through algorithmic design, debugging, and system architecture analysis. * '''Creativity and Innovation (CI):''' Fostered through user interface wireframing, Web prototyping, and practical coding projects. * '''Collaboration and Communication (CC):''' Developed via group laboratory tasks, peer code reviews, and project presentations. * '''Digital Literacy & Cultural Identity:''' Encourages applying computing solutions to local challenges in Ghana while navigating global digital spaces ethically. == Learning Resources & Practical Tools == === Recommended Software & Tools === * '''Programming:''' Python 3.x, IDLE / VS Code * '''Database:''' MySQL / SQLite, phpMyAdmin * '''Web Design:''' HTML5 / CSS3 / JavaScript, Figma or Wireframe.cc for prototyping * '''Simulation & Logic:''' Logisim (for digital logic gates and Boolean circuit design) === Assessment Framework === Assessment follows the **National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF)**: * '''Formative Assessment (60%):''' Practical lab assignments, class projects, quizzes, and collaborative group tasks. * '''Summative Assessment (40%):''' End-of-term examinations and final capstone project evaluation. == References & Official Resources == * '''Ministry of Education / NaCCA (2023).''' ''Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 – 3)''. Accra: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. * '''Ministry of Education / T-TEL (2024).''' ''Teacher and Learner Resource Packs: Senior High School Computing''. Ghana Education Service. * '''National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF).''' NaCCA Official Portal ([https://nacca.gov.gh nacca.gov.gh]). == Community & Contribution == Wikiversity thrives on open collaboration. Educators, students, and open-source advocates are invited to contribute learning modules, lab guides, and exercises tailored for Ghanaian secondary schools. [[Category:Computing]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Secondary Education]] b6ftmgvdv03jttwk3zfh8gffrzhw2mc 0 330750 2819426 2026-07-26T12:42:31Z Alandmanson 1669821 Created page with "== Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina == ===Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840=== *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side..." 2819426 wikitext text/x-wiki == Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina == ===Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840=== *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> la7235pz51pt411dg9c7yqlcayf7xua 2819428 2819426 2026-07-26T12:43:24Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina */ 2819428 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = ===Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840=== *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> extwo2eclzoakvakx6wpm7f9mc7ng9x 2819430 2819428 2026-07-26T12:43:49Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Genus Dicranorhina Shuckard, 1840 */ 2819430 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = == Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840 == *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> 2ksfqdnbaeiv7g1wdmythnhxr4xcysg 2819431 2819430 2026-07-26T12:46:28Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Liris species of South Africa */ 2819431 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = == Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840 == *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described, or has not yet been seen South Africa! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> f0j5nqirb851qlgr9bhornmcv19nkhq 2819437 2819431 2026-07-26T12:55:05Z MathXplore 2888076 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 2819437 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = == Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840 == *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described, or has not yet been seen South Africa! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> {{BookCat}} a6dbr087t1toguu4aeyaosnfl2zmbgp 2819441 2819437 2026-07-26T12:57:38Z Alandmanson 1669821 2819441 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = == Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840 == *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described, or has not yet been seen South Africa! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago), so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} n7otx1zc6fjy2mhcnrm3xkfzema9rwm 2819442 2819441 2026-07-26T12:59:53Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Liris species of South Africa */ 2819442 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = == Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840 == *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> === Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 === Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described, or has not yet been seen South Africa! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago, so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue). Some of the more distinctive characteristics are highlighted in '''bold'''. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} gjbslz8jabmizlmsy5dsjbwc98xie90 2819473 2819442 2026-07-27T07:35:21Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Genus Larra Fabricius, 1793 */ 2819473 wikitext text/x-wiki = Guide to South African wasp species of Subtribe Larrina = == Genus ''Dicranorhina'' Shuckard, 1840 == *''Dicranorhina kohli'' (Brauns, 1899) (South Africa) <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975.jpg Dicranorhina kohli 2023 07 25 iN 176115975 b.jpg Dicranorhina kohli.jpg </gallery> == Genus ''Larra'' Fabricius, 1793 == Separation of ''Larra'' from ''Liris'' is difficult (Bohart and Menke, 1976, p.235). A good view of the side of the propodeum is necessary to see the degree of punctuation (smooth in ''Liris'', distinct punctures in ''Larra''). Two South African species (''extrema'' and ''outeniqua'') have ferruginous or blackish-red legs; the third (nigripes) has a red gaster with a black tip: *''Larra extrema'' Dahlbom, 1845 (South Africa) "Abdomen totum nigrum; os, antenne et pedes ex parte, piceo-rufa" (The abdomen is entirely black; the mouth, antennae and feet are partly blackish-red.)<ref>Dahlbom 1845 Hymenoptera Europaea praecipue borealia; ... http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15796684</ref> *''Larra nigripes'' (Fabricius, 1793) (South Africa) "Black, gaster red, segment 5 somewhat blackish, 6 black. Wings not very dark, pale brownish with yellowish tinge. Gaster impunctate. Interocular distance on vertex = 14.5, at base of clypeus = 23.5, total width of head = 41, antennal segments 3-5 = 8.5, 5.5, 6.<ref>van der Vecht, 1961a. Hymenoptera Sphecoidea Fabriciana. Zoologische Verhandelingen 48:18. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149001</ref> *''Larra outeniqua'' Arnold, 1923 (South Africa) "Black; mandibles, lower margins of the scapes, all the femora, tibiae and tarsi, and extreme apex of last sternite, ferruginous. Wings pale smoky, the veins black."<ref>Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:224. https://journals.co.za/toc/nfi.annalstm/9/4</ref> == ''Liris'' species of South Africa == There are about 70 species of ''Liris'' in the Afrotropics. Most are small (5-24 mm long) and dark, so species identification from photographs is difficult. However, in South Africa, the diversity is obviously more limited, and some have fairly distinctive characteristics, allowing some species identifications to be suggested - of course, it is always possible that the species photographed is one that has not been described, or has not yet been seen South Africa! The summary below is based on the descriptions of George Arnold (published over 100 years ago, so a modern revision of these charismatic wasps is long overdue). Some of the more distinctive characteristics are highlighted in '''bold'''. === Wings dark fuscous === Very dark wings, often with violet reflections *''Liris'' ''diabolicus'' (Smith, 1873), description as ''Liris diabolica'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:252. '''Dense dark fulvous (to golden) pubescence on head, pronotum and mesonotum'''. *''Liris nugax'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea nugax'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:232. '''Head with golden pubescence'''. *''Liris atropos'' Gribodo 1984, description as ''Liris atropos'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:253. Face and clypeus with a yellowish silvery pubescence *''Liris rufoscapus'' (Cameron, 1905), description as ''Notogonidea rufoscapa'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:233. '''Lower half of the face and the clypeus with a thin greyish silvery pubescence'''. *''Liris ciliatus'' (Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea ciliata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:234. '''Foreleg tarsi with a comb composed of long, flattened spines'''; scapes black. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris inaturalist 197329080.jpg|''Liris diabolicus'' with cricket prey </gallery> === Wings flavo-hyaline, often with a fuscous (darker) apical margin === *''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' (Fabricius, 1804) described in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:251. "Black; mandibles except their apices, scape and first three joints of the flagellum, apical half of the fifth and the whole of the sixth abdominal segments above (and more or less also at the sides and below), and all the legs, ferruginous; '''the coxae and trochanters, and basal inner half of the middle and hind femora, black'''. '''Head, pro-mesonotum, scutellum, metanotum and dorsal surface of the abdomen clothed with a very dense, adpressed and short pubescence, of a brassy golden colour''', somewhat darker on the thorax than on the abdomen." *''Liris bembesianus'' (Bischoff, 1913), described as ''Notogonidea bembesiana'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:236. "Black; the scape and first two joints of the flagellum, '''the legs, the fifth and sixth tergites and sometimes also the apical margin of the fourth, the fifth and sixth and greater part of the fourth sternites, bright ferruginous''' (pale burnt sienna); the apical margins of the first three abdominal segments more or less reddish brown. The middle and hind coxae and trochanters sometimes entirely red, or more or less marked with black. Spines on the legs ferruginous, the posterior calcaria piceous." *''Liris solstitialis'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea solstitialis'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:238. "Black; the '''posterior femora ferruginous'''. Clypeus and face with short and dense silvery pubescence, the rest of the body and legs covered with a dense and exceedingly fine pruinose bloom, somewhat yellowish on the mesonotum and epinotum, and forming more conspicuous transverse and silvery grey fasciae on the apical margins of the abdominal segments." *''Liris croesus'' (Smith, 1856), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:235. "Black; the tarsi and all the spines on the legs dark ferruginous; apical abdominal segment piceous." <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Liris on Crassula iN 42678436 03.jpg|''Liris haemorrhoidalis'' </gallery> === Wings hyaline === Wings hyaline (colorless, glassy, and transparent), or pale fusco-hyaline (slightly darker than hyaline), sometimes with a darker apical margin *''Liris thysanomerus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea thysanomera'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:239: "Black; the tegulae reddish yellow, '''all the legs (excluding the coxae and trochanters) bright ferruginous'''; the lower surface of the scapes reddish piceous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border, the veins brown. Clypeus and lower half of the face with bright silvery pubescence. The rest of the head and thorax with a very fine and inconspicuous pubescence, yellowish grey on the mesonotum, dull white elsewhere. Abdomen with a pruinose pubescence, more silvery on the apical halves of the segments, where it forms transverse fasciae, more conspicuous when viewed from behind. Pygidial area with short and dull golden hairs, the apical margin with a row of reddish yellow setae." *''Liris odontophorus'' (Kohl, 1894), description as ''Notogonidea odontophora'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:240. "Black; mandibles, anterior margin of the clypeus, scapes, the first four joints of the flagellum and the fifth underneath, the apex of the posterior tibiae inwardly, the apical margin of the third, and the whole of the fourth to sixth abdominal segments, ferruginous; the tarsi reddish brown, the tegulae ferruginous behind. Face and clypeus with fine silvery pubescence. Thorax and apical margins of the first three tergites with an exceedingly fine or almost pollinose pubescence, on the epinotum a little longer and outstanding. Wings very pale fusco-hyaline, a little darker beyond the second cubital cell." *''Liris rubellus'' (F. Smith, 1856), description as ''Notogonidea cyphononyx'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:241. "Black; '''first three segments of the abdomen dark castaneous red''', with an indistinct transverse band of black behind the apical margin of the first segment, and a spot on each side of the second, '''or, as in the type of the species, the whole abdomen red'''. Head and thorax clothed with a very fine, short and yellowish grey pubescence, not obscuring the sculpture, somewhat longer and silvery on the clypeus and face. Abdomen with a little whitish pubescence on the apical margins of the first three segments. Wings faintly fusco-hyaline, darker towards the apex." *''Liris denticulatus'' (R. Turner, 1920), description as ''Notogonidea denticulata'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:242. *''Liris nigricans'' (Walker, 1871), description as ''Notogonidea nigricans'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:243. "Black; wings hyaline, faintly fuscous over the apical third. Clypeus, face and back of the head with silvery pubescence, thorax with a very short, scanty and whitish pubescence; abdomen and legs with a thin and inconspicuous pruinose pubescence, not forming apical fasciae on the former." *''Liris niger namana'' (Bischoff, 1913b:121), described as "Notogonia pompiliformis namana" Bischoff, 1913 *''Liris felina'' (Arnold, 1923), described as ''Notogonidea felina'' in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:247. "Black; tarsi pale ferruginous, the basal two-thirds of the anterior metatarsus fusco-ferruginous. Wings hyaline, with a narrow fuscous apical border which is darker than in sepulchralis, the veins blackish brown. Pubescence like that of sepulchralis but only the first three tergites have apical fasciae. The coarse decumbent pubescence of the pygidial area is less dense, greyer than in sepulchralis and intermixed with more numerous fine blackish hairs; the apical margin has a row of eight black spines. The spines on the tibiae are black, on the tarsi fusco-ferruginous." *''Liris sepulchralis'' (Gerstaecker in Peters, 1858), description as ''Notogonidea sepulchralis'' (and as ''N. pompiliformis intermedia'') in Arnold, G. 1923b. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part III. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 9:244. "Black; the tarsi reddish brown, the basal joint usually darker towards the base. Wings hyaline, slightly smoky, with a narrow apical fuscous border beyond the cells. Clypeus and face, back of the head and anterior femora below, with dense silvery pubescence, the thorax with a scanty and greyish pubescence, fairly short, and on the mesonotum confined to the lateral margins. Legs and abdomen pruinose, the abdomen with apical fasciae of greyish silvery pubescence on the first four tergites. Pygidial area covered with short, decumbent and yellowish grey setae, with a few long and finer hairs intermixed, the apical margin with a row of six reddish spines. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} c6qcw9x0ghz7b0se1j5gi8iansw484g 0 330751 2819427 2026-07-26T12:43:10Z Dnshitobu 2955086 updated page 2819427 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ = Computing for Senior High School Year 2 = Welcome to the '''Year 2 Computing Portal''' for Senior High Schools in Ghana. This page provides the curriculum roadmap, weekly topic breakdown, and learning resources designed in accordance with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) Standards-Based Curriculum. == Course Overview == The **SHS Year 2 Computing** course builds upon Year 1 fundamentals by deepening students' technical competency in digital logic, network engineering, algorithm design, real-world programming, machine learning basics, and relational database systems. Key focus areas for this year include: * '''Boolean Algebra & Digital Logic:''' Designing and analyzing logic circuits, evaluating Boolean expressions, and understanding intermediate gate behaviors. * '''Hardware, Software & Scanning Technologies:''' Exploring software categories alongside modern data encoding using Barcodes and QR codes. * '''Network Systems & Connectivity:''' In-depth examination of network architectures, physical connection media, and network topology implementations. * '''Data Structures & Memory Operations:''' Practical mapping of arrays, stacks, and queues directly to main memory (RAM) management. * '''Applied Programming & Machine Learning:''' Developing practical software applications in Python, building utility tools (e.g., custom calculators), and introducing basic machine learning logic and ethics. * '''Web Page Editors & Database Design:''' Constructing web pages using modern web editors and structuring relational databases. == Weekly Syllabus Schedule == {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Week !! Section !! Focal Area / Topic |- | Week 1 || Section 1: Boolean Algebra || [[/Understanding Logic Operations and Expressions|Understanding Logic Operations and Expressions]] |- | Week 2 || Section 1: Boolean Algebra || [[/Applying Boolean Expressions|Applying Boolean Expressions]] |- | Week 3 || Section 1: Boolean Algebra || [[/Arithmetic Operations and Logic Circuit Construction|Arithmetic Operations and Logic Circuit Construction]] |- | Week 4 || Section 2: Hardware, Software & Barcodes || [[/Creating and Utilising Barcodes and QR Codes|Creating and Utilising Barcodes and QR Codes]] |- | Week 5 || Section 2: Hardware, Software & Barcodes || [[/Barcodes and QR Codes Applications|Barcodes and QR Codes Applications]] |- | Week 6 || Section 2: Hardware, Software & Barcodes || [[/Types of Software and Their Functions|Types of Software and Their Functions]] |- | Week 7 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network Systems Architecture|Network Systems Architecture]] |- | Week 8 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network Topologies and Configurations|Network Topologies and Configurations]] |- | Week 9 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network Connectivity and Media|Network Connectivity and Media]] |- | Week 10 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network System Connectivity and Diagnostics|Network System Connectivity and Diagnostics]] |- | Week 11 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Advanced Data Communication Networks|Advanced Data Communication Networks]] |- | Week 12 || Section 4: Main Memory & Data Structures || [[/Main Memory and Data Structures|Main Memory and Data Structures]] |- | Week 13 || Section 4: Main Memory & Data Structures || [[/Real-Life Applications of Data Structures|Real-Life Applications of Data Structures]] |- | Week 14 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Basic Programming Concepts|Basic Programming Concepts]] |- | Week 15 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Control Structures and Program Logic|Control Structures and Program Logic]] |- | Week 16 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Creating Practical Applications (Simple Calculator)|Creating Practical Applications (Simple Calculator)]] |- | Week 17 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Understanding Machine Learning Concepts|Understanding Machine Learning Concepts]] |- | Week 18 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Implementing Machine Learning and Ethical Considerations|Implementing Machine Learning and Ethical Considerations]] |- | Week 19 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Page Editors and Design Elements|Page Editors and Design Elements]] |- | Week 20 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Responsive Web Layouts and Navigation|Responsive Web Layouts and Navigation]] |- | Week 21 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Web Publishing and Asset Management|Web Publishing and Asset Management]] |- | Week 22 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Introduction to Database Concepts|Introduction to Database Concepts]] |- | Week 23 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Data Modeling and Entity Relationships|Data Modeling and Entity Relationships]] |- | Week 24 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Relational Database Design|Relational Database Design]] |} == Practical Projects & Assessment Guidelines == According to the NaCCA assessment framework, Year 2 students complete both individual laboratory tasks and collaborative group projects throughout the academic year: 1. '''Logic Circuit Construction Project:''' Design, build, and test a multi-input logic circuit combining NAND, NOR, and XOR gates for real-world automated input systems. 2. '''Software Application Project:''' Develop a functional GUI or command-line utility (e.g., a multi-function calculator) using Python control structures. 3. '''Database & Web Layout Design:''' Model an entity-relationship (ER) diagram for a school record system and design a corresponding interactive web view using visual web tools. == References & Official Resources == * '''Ministry of Education / NaCCA (2023).''' ''Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 – 3)''. Accra: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. * '''Ministry of Education / T-TEL (2024).''' ''Year Two Computing Teacher Manual''. Ghana Education Service Resource Packs. * '''National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF).''' NaCCA Curriculum Portal ([https://nacca.gov.gh nacca.gov.gh]). [[Category:Computing]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Ghana Education Service]] [[Category:Secondary Education]] 592zady0gumsvcr8tfaqemit80smsis 2819429 2819427 2026-07-26T12:43:38Z Dnshitobu 2955086 /* Course Overview */ 2819429 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ = Computing for Senior High School Year 2 = Welcome to the '''Year 2 Computing Portal''' for Senior High Schools in Ghana. This page provides the curriculum roadmap, weekly topic breakdown, and learning resources designed in accordance with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) Standards-Based Curriculum. == Course Overview == The SHS Year 2 Computing course builds upon Year 1 fundamentals by deepening students' technical competency in digital logic, network engineering, algorithm design, real-world programming, machine learning basics, and relational database systems. Key focus areas for this year include: * '''Boolean Algebra & Digital Logic:''' Designing and analyzing logic circuits, evaluating Boolean expressions, and understanding intermediate gate behaviors. * '''Hardware, Software & Scanning Technologies:''' Exploring software categories alongside modern data encoding using Barcodes and QR codes. * '''Network Systems & Connectivity:''' In-depth examination of network architectures, physical connection media, and network topology implementations. * '''Data Structures & Memory Operations:''' Practical mapping of arrays, stacks, and queues directly to main memory (RAM) management. * '''Applied Programming & Machine Learning:''' Developing practical software applications in Python, building utility tools (e.g., custom calculators), and introducing basic machine learning logic and ethics. * '''Web Page Editors & Database Design:''' Constructing web pages using modern web editors and structuring relational databases. == Weekly Syllabus Schedule == {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Week !! Section !! Focal Area / Topic |- | Week 1 || Section 1: Boolean Algebra || [[/Understanding Logic Operations and Expressions|Understanding Logic Operations and Expressions]] |- | Week 2 || Section 1: Boolean Algebra || [[/Applying Boolean Expressions|Applying Boolean Expressions]] |- | Week 3 || Section 1: Boolean Algebra || [[/Arithmetic Operations and Logic Circuit Construction|Arithmetic Operations and Logic Circuit Construction]] |- | Week 4 || Section 2: Hardware, Software & Barcodes || [[/Creating and Utilising Barcodes and QR Codes|Creating and Utilising Barcodes and QR Codes]] |- | Week 5 || Section 2: Hardware, Software & Barcodes || [[/Barcodes and QR Codes Applications|Barcodes and QR Codes Applications]] |- | Week 6 || Section 2: Hardware, Software & Barcodes || [[/Types of Software and Their Functions|Types of Software and Their Functions]] |- | Week 7 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network Systems Architecture|Network Systems Architecture]] |- | Week 8 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network Topologies and Configurations|Network Topologies and Configurations]] |- | Week 9 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network Connectivity and Media|Network Connectivity and Media]] |- | Week 10 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Network System Connectivity and Diagnostics|Network System Connectivity and Diagnostics]] |- | Week 11 || Section 3: Network Systems & Topologies || [[/Advanced Data Communication Networks|Advanced Data Communication Networks]] |- | Week 12 || Section 4: Main Memory & Data Structures || [[/Main Memory and Data Structures|Main Memory and Data Structures]] |- | Week 13 || Section 4: Main Memory & Data Structures || [[/Real-Life Applications of Data Structures|Real-Life Applications of Data Structures]] |- | Week 14 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Basic Programming Concepts|Basic Programming Concepts]] |- | Week 15 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Control Structures and Program Logic|Control Structures and Program Logic]] |- | Week 16 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Creating Practical Applications (Simple Calculator)|Creating Practical Applications (Simple Calculator)]] |- | Week 17 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Understanding Machine Learning Concepts|Understanding Machine Learning Concepts]] |- | Week 18 || Section 5: Utilising Programming Language || [[/Implementing Machine Learning and Ethical Considerations|Implementing Machine Learning and Ethical Considerations]] |- | Week 19 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Page Editors and Design Elements|Page Editors and Design Elements]] |- | Week 20 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Responsive Web Layouts and Navigation|Responsive Web Layouts and Navigation]] |- | Week 21 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Web Publishing and Asset Management|Web Publishing and Asset Management]] |- | Week 22 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Introduction to Database Concepts|Introduction to Database Concepts]] |- | Week 23 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Data Modeling and Entity Relationships|Data Modeling and Entity Relationships]] |- | Week 24 || Section 6: Web Page Editors & Databases || [[/Relational Database Design|Relational Database Design]] |} == Practical Projects & Assessment Guidelines == According to the NaCCA assessment framework, Year 2 students complete both individual laboratory tasks and collaborative group projects throughout the academic year: 1. '''Logic Circuit Construction Project:''' Design, build, and test a multi-input logic circuit combining NAND, NOR, and XOR gates for real-world automated input systems. 2. '''Software Application Project:''' Develop a functional GUI or command-line utility (e.g., a multi-function calculator) using Python control structures. 3. '''Database & Web Layout Design:''' Model an entity-relationship (ER) diagram for a school record system and design a corresponding interactive web view using visual web tools. == References & Official Resources == * '''Ministry of Education / NaCCA (2023).''' ''Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 – 3)''. Accra: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. * '''Ministry of Education / T-TEL (2024).''' ''Year Two Computing Teacher Manual''. Ghana Education Service Resource Packs. * '''National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF).''' NaCCA Curriculum Portal ([https://nacca.gov.gh nacca.gov.gh]). [[Category:Computing]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Ghana Education Service]] [[Category:Secondary Education]] bho5bwuetymxwizyk2y4oi1pkfe8vb6 0 330752 2819433 2026-07-26T12:48:35Z Dnshitobu 2955086 updated page 2819433 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ = Computing for Senior High School Year 3 = Welcome to the Year 3 Computing Portal for Senior High Schools in Ghana. This page provides the curriculum roadmap, weekly topic breakdown, and capstone guidelines aligned with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) Standards-Based Curriculum. == Course Overview == The SHS Year 3 Computing course focuses on software engineering principles, full-stack web integration, network security, database management, digital ethics, and capstone software project development. Key focus areas for Year 3 include: * '''Systems Architecture & OS Principles:''' Understanding low-level instruction execution, process scheduling, and operating system functions. * '''Network Security & Infrastructure:''' Implementing encryption protocols, assessing network security risks, and configuring secure communication lines. * '''Software Engineering & OOP:''' Utilizing object-oriented programming (OOP) paradigms, modular design, and dynamic data structures in Python. * '''Dynamic Web Development & APIs:''' Constructing interactive web applications with dynamic content and RESTful API connections. * '''Advanced Database Management:''' Writing complex SQL queries, applying database normalization rules, and linking back-ends to front-ends. * '''Cybersecurity, Ethics & Emerging Tech:''' Evaluating computer law, digital citizenship, cloud computing, AI, and developing a final capstone project. == Weekly Syllabus Schedule == {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Week !! Section !! Focal Area / Topic |- | Week 1 || Section 1: Systems Architecture || [[/CPU Instruction Sets and Performance|CPU Instruction Sets and Performance]] |- | Week 2 || Section 1: Systems Architecture || [[/Operating System Architecture and Processes|Operating System Architecture and Processes]] |- | Week 3 || Section 1: Systems Architecture || [[/Memory Management and Allocation|Memory Management and Allocation]] |- | Week 4 || Section 1: Systems Architecture || [[/Virtualization and Cloud Systems|Virtualization and Cloud Systems]] |- | Week 5 || Section 2: Network Security || [[/Data Communication Protocols|Data Communication Protocols]] |- | Week 6 || Section 2: Network Security || [[/Network Security Threats and Firewalls|Network Security Threats and Firewalls]] |- | Week 7 || Section 2: Network Security || [[/Cryptography and Encryption Concepts|Cryptography and Encryption Concepts]] |- | Week 8 || Section 2: Network Security || [[/Wireless Security and Network Troubleshooting|Wireless Security and Network Troubleshooting]] |- | Week 9 || Section 3: Software Engineering || [[/Software Development Life Cycle Models|Software Development Life Cycle Models]] |- | Week 10 || Section 3: Software Engineering || [[/Object-Oriented Programming Paradigms|Object-Oriented Programming Paradigms]] |- | Week 11 || Section 3: Software Engineering || [[/Dynamic Data Structures and Recursion|Dynamic Data Structures and Recursion]] |- | Week 12 || Section 3: Software Engineering || [[/Algorithm Optimization and Complexity|Algorithm Optimization and Complexity]] |- | Week 13 || Section 3: Software Engineering || [[/Software Testing and Debugging Strategies|Software Testing and Debugging Strategies]] |- | Week 14 || Section 4: Web Application Dev || [[/Dynamic Web Page Architecture|Dynamic Web Page Architecture]] |- | Week 15 || Section 4: Web Application Dev || [[/Client-Side and Server-Side Scripting|Client-Side and Server-Side Scripting]] |- | Week 16 || Section 4: Web Application Dev || [[/API Integration and Data Exchange|API Integration and Data Exchange]] |- | Week 17 || Section 4: Web Application Dev || [[/Web Application Security and Forms|Web Application Security and Forms]] |- | Week 18 || Section 5: Database Engineering || [[/Relational Algebra and Advanced SQL|Relational Algebra and Advanced SQL]] |- | Week 19 || Section 5: Database Engineering || [[/Database Normalisation and Integrity|Database Normalisation and Integrity]] |- | Week 20 || Section 5: Database Engineering || [[/Connecting Applications to Databases|Connecting Applications to Databases]] |- | Week 21 || Section 6: Ethics & Emerging Tech || [[/Cyber Law and Intellectual Property in Ghana|Cyber Law and Intellectual Property in Ghana]] |- | Week 22 || Section 6: Ethics & Emerging Tech || [[/Ethics in Artificial Intelligence and Automation|Ethics in Artificial Intelligence and Automation]] |- | Week 23 || Section 6: Ethics & Emerging Tech || [[/Capstone Project Development I|Capstone Project Development I]] |- | Week 24 || Section 6: Ethics & Emerging Tech || [[/Capstone Project Presentation and Evaluation|Capstone Project Presentation and Evaluation]] |} == Capstone Project & Assessment Framework == In alignment with the National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF), Year 3 assessment emphasizes practical synthesis and problem-solving: 1. '''Capstone Software / Web Project:''' Students work individually or in small teams to design, code, and document a real-world computing solution (e.g., a web application, automated school system, or small database utility). 2. '''Portfolio Assessment:''' Comprehensive collection of lab tasks, code repositories, and system design specifications accumulated throughout the year. 3. '''Final External & Performance Evaluation:''' Hands-on laboratory examination and theoretical assessment based on NaCCA standards. == References & Official Resources == * '''Ministry of Education / NaCCA (2023).''' ''Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 – 3)''. Accra: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. * '''Ministry of Education / T-TEL (2024).''' ''Year Three Computing Teacher Manual''. Ghana Education Service Resource Packs. * '''National Pre-Tertiary Learning Assessment Framework (NPLAF).''' NaCCA Curriculum Portal ([https://nacca.gov.gh nacca.gov.gh]). [[Category:Computing]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Ghana Education Service]] [[Category:Secondary Education]] 1h6i4ragggjmhf3hjhiado3rcmzarhe 0 330753 2819444 2026-07-26T14:38:01Z U3183521 2947387 Headings and initial research 2819444 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == == Theoretical framework == == The incarceration context == == Motivational impacts of incarceration == == Cultural identity as a motivational resource == Connection to Community, Country and culture Influence of Elders Influence of 'shame' == Culturally-specific programs and motivational outcomes == Men's healing programs Women's healing programs The Torch and importance of story-telling through art Importance of reconnecting to Community as part of rehabilitation == Conclusion == == Key points == == Figure == == Learning feature == == Resources == == References == Productivity Commission's Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap – Highlight justice Outcomes 10 and 11 and current data. Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research's Independent Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap – Highlight justice cultural insights and recommendations on Outcomes 10 and 11. Australian Law Reform Commission – Pathways to Justice – Inquiry into the Incarceration Rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (ALRC Report 133). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/ohmn6w2khr?route=details == Social contribution == link 1 link 2 link 3 k5330a9vjdjfnn6jdqu382cp8u4unhn 2819447 2819444 2026-07-26T14:43:46Z U3183521 2947387 2819447 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == == Theoretical framework == == The incarceration context == == Motivational impacts of incarceration == == Cultural identity as a motivational resource == Connection to Community, Country and culture Influence of Elders Influence of 'shame' == Culturally-specific programs and motivational outcomes == First Nations sentencing courts – Koori Court and Circle Sentencing Men's healing programs Women's healing programs The Torch and importance of story-telling through art Importance of reconnecting to Community as part of rehabilitation == Conclusion == == Key points == == Figure == == Learning feature == == Resources == == References == Productivity Commission's Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap – Highlight justice Outcomes 10 and 11 and current data. Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research's Independent Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap – Highlight justice cultural insights and recommendations on Outcomes 10 and 11. Australian Law Reform Commission – Pathways to Justice – Inquiry into the Incarceration Rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (ALRC Report 133). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/ohmn6w2khr?route=details == Social contribution == link 1 link 2 link 3 9kn9bxy9k1atynp7j4eiuhsyrs8x2qc 2819450 2819447 2026-07-26T14:51:22Z U3183521 2947387 /* Theoretical framework */ 2819450 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == == Theoretical framework == Self-determination theory * facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being Making Good: How Ex-Convicts Reform and Rebuild Their Lives == The incarceration context == == Motivational impacts of incarceration == == Cultural identity as a motivational resource == Connection to Community, Country and culture Influence of Elders Influence of 'shame' == Culturally-specific programs and motivational outcomes == First Nations sentencing courts – Koori Court and Circle Sentencing Men's healing programs Women's healing programs The Torch and importance of story-telling through art Importance of reconnecting to Community as part of rehabilitation == Conclusion == == Key points == == Figure == == Learning feature == == Resources == == References == Productivity Commission's Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap, 2024. https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries-and-research/closing-the-gap-review/report/ * Highlight justice Outcomes 10 and 11 and current data. Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research's Independent Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap. https://www.coalitionofpeaks.org.au/independent-review-of-closing-the-gap * Highlight justice cultural insights and recommendations on Outcomes 10 and 11. Australian Law Reform Commission – Pathways to Justice – Inquiry into the Incarceration Rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (ALRC Report 133). https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/pathways-to-justice-inquiry-into-the-incarceration-rate-of-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-alrc-report-133/ Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/ohmn6w2khr?route=details Maruna, Shadd. (2001). Making Good: How Ex-Convicts Reform and Rebuild Their Lives. Making good: How ex-convicts reform and rebuild their lives.. 6. 10.1037/10430-000. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232604319_Making_Good_How_Ex-Convicts_Reform_and_Rebuild_Their_Lives == Social contribution == link 1 link 2 link 3 jy0pkg4qs8qcthkqbeb1m1oizvljxdq 2819484 2819450 2026-07-27T08:11:36Z Jtneill 10242 + title placeholder 2819484 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title:<br>Subtitle}} == Overview == == Theoretical framework == Self-determination theory * facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being Making Good: How Ex-Convicts Reform and Rebuild Their Lives == The incarceration context == == Motivational impacts of incarceration == == Cultural identity as a motivational resource == Connection to Community, Country and culture Influence of Elders Influence of 'shame' == Culturally-specific programs and motivational outcomes == First Nations sentencing courts – Koori Court and Circle Sentencing Men's healing programs Women's healing programs The Torch and importance of story-telling through art Importance of reconnecting to Community as part of rehabilitation == Conclusion == == Key points == == Figure == == Learning feature == == Resources == == References == Productivity Commission's Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap, 2024. https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries-and-research/closing-the-gap-review/report/ * Highlight justice Outcomes 10 and 11 and current data. Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research's Independent Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap. https://www.coalitionofpeaks.org.au/independent-review-of-closing-the-gap * Highlight justice cultural insights and recommendations on Outcomes 10 and 11. Australian Law Reform Commission – Pathways to Justice – Inquiry into the Incarceration Rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (ALRC Report 133). https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/pathways-to-justice-inquiry-into-the-incarceration-rate-of-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-alrc-report-133/ Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/ohmn6w2khr?route=details Maruna, Shadd. (2001). Making Good: How Ex-Convicts Reform and Rebuild Their Lives. Making good: How ex-convicts reform and rebuild their lives.. 6. 10.1037/10430-000. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232604319_Making_Good_How_Ex-Convicts_Reform_and_Rebuild_Their_Lives == Social contribution == {{comment|Move these to your user page and use a numbered list}} link 1 link 2 link 3 [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Indigenous/Australian]] e1a24k9ira8005bpncag543e9sshrmc 0 330755 2819456 2026-07-27T00:49:34Z DavidMCEddy 218607 create 2819456 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This discusses a 2026-07-31 interview with Yonty Friesem<ref name=Yonty><!--Yonty Friesem-->{{cite Q|Q140685186}}</ref> about media education, including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-08-08 to the fortnightly "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''<ref><!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates-->{{cite Q|Q6593294}}</ref> :''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV>The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.</ref> and treating others with respect.''<ref name=AGF>[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|"Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything."]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.</ref> <!--[[File:Yonty Friesem on media education.webm|thumb|2026-07-31 interview with Yonty Friesem about media education.]]--> <!--[[File:Yonty Friesem on media education.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpted from a 2026-07-31 interview with Yonty Friesem about media education.]]--> Yonty Friesem<ref name=Yonty/> is an award-winning educator, scholar and filmmaker. He is the Executive Director of the Media Education Lab<ref name=MEL><!--Media Education Lab-->{{cite Q|Q140686986}}</ref> and an Associate Professor of Communication at [[w:Columbia College Chicago|Columbia College Chicago]]. The Media Education Lab is an online community working to advance digital and media literacy education through leadership development, scholarship, and community engagement. It was founded in 2003 by by [[w:Renee Hobbs|Renee Hobbs]], then at [[w:Temple University|Temple University]]. It has team members, faculty and graduate students in many different countries. Friesem completed a 4-year program in Video and Film Production at the Camera Obscura School of Art in Israel in 2001, a BA in Social Science and Humanities at the [[w:Open University of Israel|Open University of Israel]] in 2007, an MA in Management and Leadership in Education at [[w:Tel Aviv University|Tel Aviv University]] in 2010, and a PhD in Education at the [[w:University of Rhode Island|University of Rhode Island]] in 2015. (Hobbs was appointed the Founding Director of the Harrington School of Communication and Media at the University of Rhode Island in 2012.) Friesem joined Columbia College Chicago in 2018. He is lead editor of (2022) ''The Routledge handbook on media education futures post-pandemic''. And he is author or a co-author of numerous other publications including the following: * (2026) "Young people evaluating online information credibility. Special issue synthesis"<ref>Nestor et al. (2026).</ref> * (2023) "Social Justice Education as an Intercultural Experience for Foreign Students in the United States"<ref>Yeh and Friesem (2023).</ref> * (2021-12-29) "The secret sauce of online community of practice during COVID-19 pandemic: Nonviolent Communication"<ref>Friesem and Friesem (2021).</ref> * (2021-07-14) "The PARIS model: Creating a sustainable and participatory civic media with and for the community through immersive experiences"<ref>Y. Friesem (2021).</ref> * (2020-10-13) "It’s All About Control: How Giving Kids Control Over Access, Content, and Format of Their Media Production Advances Social and Emotional Learning"<ref>Friesem (2020-10-13).</ref> * (2020-08-04) "Tuned In: The Importance of Peer Feedback with Foster Youth Creating Media"<ref>Friesem and Greene (2020).</ref> == The need for media reform to improve democracy == This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media & Democracy lessons for the future]]. ==Discussion == :''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV/> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF/>]'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!--Yonty Friesem, ed. (2022) The Routledge handbook on media education futures post-pandemic-->{{cite Q|Q140705564|author=Yonty Friesem, ed.}} * <!--Yonty Friesem (2021-07-14) The PARIS model: Creating a sustainable and participatory civic media with and for the community through immersive experiences-->{{cite Q|Q140706700}} * <!--Yonty Friesem (2020-10-13) It’s All About Control: How Giving Kids Control Over Access, Content, and Format of Their Media Production Advances Social and Emotional Learning-->{{cite Q|Q140707050}} * <!--Yonty Friesem and Elizaveta Friesem (2021-12-29) "The secret sauce of online community of practice during COVID-19 pandemic: Nonviolent Communication-->{{cite Q|Q140706479}} * <!--Yonty Friesem and Kelsey Greene (2020-08-04) Tuned In: The Importance of Peer Feedback with Foster Youth Creating Media-->{{cite Q|Q140707249}} * <!-- Nicolae Nistor, Yonty Friesem, Cristina Nistor, and Rares Beuran (2026-06-18) "Young people evaluating online information credibility. Special issue synthesis", Computers in Human Behavior-->{{cite Q|Q140705851}} * <!--Ellen Yeh and Yonty Friesem (2023) Social Justice Education as an Intercultural Experience for Foreign Students in the United States-->{{cite Q|Q129327420}} [[Category:Media]] [[Category:News]] [[Category:Democracy]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Media literacy]] [[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] <!--list of categories https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review [[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--> lg6vbc1n0g70rr0tao7qlny0ccobunu 6 330756 2819466 2026-07-27T04:36:03Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260727 - 20260723) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2819466 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260727 - 20260723) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 1ziuc0y9u88l50e9y7wnbs24d4qwb40 6 330757 2819469 2026-07-27T04:44:44Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (202600727 - 20260721) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2819469 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Data.1A: Data Object (202600727 - 20260721) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 0krekq5avxnskfkysx6hxb8jvw3i9kf 6 330758 2819472 2026-07-27T07:29:58Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260727 - 20260722) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2819472 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260727 - 20260722) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-07-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} r47l0yu9jwr7wud6t02pw1qp9npc1sk 0 330759 2819492 2026-07-27T10:49:15Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario 2819492 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Johana | last1 = Botero | orcid1 = 0009-0006-0484-6291 | affiliation1 = Wikimedia Colombia | first2 = Nathaly | last2 = Montoya | orcid2 = 0009-0004-3539-5599 | affiliation2 = Wikimedia Colombia | first3 = Manuel | last3 = Franco-Avellaneda | orcid3 = 0000-0002-0895-8219 | affiliation3 = Wikimedia Colombia | first4 = Julio | last4 = Gaitán | orcid4 = 0000-0002-8500-307X | affiliation4 = Universidad del Rosario | submitted = 2025-06-24 | journal = WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario''' '''Abstract''' The opening address of WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 offers a critical reflection on the contemporary transformation of the internet, which is no longer only viewed as a technical issue but a space shaped by power, values, and collective responsibility. To engage with Wikimedia today is to confront political and ethical questions about who produces knowledge, whose voices are represented, and how the digital commons are governed and sustained. In contrast to the founding ideal of an open, decentralized network oriented toward the commons, the text describes a landscape shaped by the concentration of power in private platforms, algorithmic opacity, and the commodification of knowledge—phenomena some scholars conceptualize as “techno-feudalism.” In this context, the expansion of artificial intelligence intensifies disputes over the production, interpretation, and validation of information, increasingly displacing collective practices of meaning-making. Against this backdrop, the text proposes defending “the commons” as both a guiding principle and a strategy of resistance. Wikipedia and the Wikimedia projects are presented as the largest contemporary digital commons, whose existence demonstrates the viability of collaborative, open, and non-proprietary models for large-scale knowledge production. Editing, contributing, and sustaining open infrastructures are framed as acts of resistance against disinformation, the privatization of knowledge, and uncritical automation. The address calls on the community to strengthen technologies aligned with the public interest, safeguard diverse languages and forms of knowledge, and consolidate technical communities capable of sustaining the free knowledge ecosystem. It concludes that the struggle over the future of the internet is ultimately a struggle over the kind of humanity we seek to build, affirming that the commons is not an inherited guarantee but a collective practice that must be continually renewed. '''Resumen''' El discurso de apertura de la Wiki Conferencia Colombia 2025 plantea una reflexión crítica sobre la transformación contemporánea de internet, entendida ya no solo como un problema técnico, sino también como un desafío político, ético y humano. Frente al ideal fundacional de una red abierta, descentralizada y orientada al bien común, se describe un escenario marcado por la concentración de poder en plataformas privadas, la opacidad algorítmica y la mercantilización del conocimiento, fenómeno que algunos autores conceptualizan como “tecno feudalismo”. En este contexto, la expansión de la inteligencia artificial intensifica la disputa por la producción, interpretación y validación de la información, desplazando progresivamente prácticas colectivas de construcción de sentido. Ante este panorama, el texto propone la defensa de “lo común” como principio orientador y como estrategia de resistencia. Wikipedia y los proyectos Wikimedia se presentan como el mayor común digital contemporáneo, cuya existencia demuestra la viabilidad de modelos colaborativos, abiertos y no propietarios de producción de conocimiento a gran escala. Editar, contribuir y sostener infraestructuras abiertas se conceptualiza como actos de resistencia frente a la desinformación, la privatización del saber y la automatización acrítica. El discurso convoca a la comunidad a fortalecer tecnologías orientadas al interés público, preservar lenguas y saberes diversos y consolidar comunidades técnicas capaces de sostener el ecosistema del conocimiento libre. Se concluye que la disputa por el futuro de internet es, en última instancia, una disputa por la humanidad que se desea construir, y se afirma que lo común no es un legado garantizado, sino una práctica colectiva que debe renovarse continuamente. k8juomlahlayu51inopi5cphkaya38i 2819500 2819492 2026-07-27T11:15:06Z CorraleH 2903442 2819500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Johana | last1 = Botero | orcid1 = 0009-0006-0484-6291 | affiliation1 = Wikimedia Colombia | first2 = Nathaly | last2 = Montoya | orcid2 = 0009-0004-3539-5599 | affiliation2 = Wikimedia Colombia | first3 = Manuel | last3 = Franco-Avellaneda | orcid3 = 0000-0002-0895-8219 | affiliation3 = Wikimedia Colombia | first4 = Julio | last4 = Gaitán | orcid4 = 0000-0002-8500-307X | affiliation4 = Universidad del Rosario | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario''' '''Abstract''' The opening address of WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 offers a critical reflection on the contemporary transformation of the internet, which is no longer only viewed as a technical issue but a space shaped by power, values, and collective responsibility. To engage with Wikimedia today is to confront political and ethical questions about who produces knowledge, whose voices are represented, and how the digital commons are governed and sustained. In contrast to the founding ideal of an open, decentralized network oriented toward the commons, the text describes a landscape shaped by the concentration of power in private platforms, algorithmic opacity, and the commodification of knowledge—phenomena some scholars conceptualize as “techno-feudalism.” In this context, the expansion of artificial intelligence intensifies disputes over the production, interpretation, and validation of information, increasingly displacing collective practices of meaning-making. Against this backdrop, the text proposes defending “the commons” as both a guiding principle and a strategy of resistance. Wikipedia and the Wikimedia projects are presented as the largest contemporary digital commons, whose existence demonstrates the viability of collaborative, open, and non-proprietary models for large-scale knowledge production. Editing, contributing, and sustaining open infrastructures are framed as acts of resistance against disinformation, the privatization of knowledge, and uncritical automation. The address calls on the community to strengthen technologies aligned with the public interest, safeguard diverse languages and forms of knowledge, and consolidate technical communities capable of sustaining the free knowledge ecosystem. It concludes that the struggle over the future of the internet is ultimately a struggle over the kind of humanity we seek to build, affirming that the commons is not an inherited guarantee but a collective practice that must be continually renewed. '''Resumen''' El discurso de apertura de la Wiki Conferencia Colombia 2025 plantea una reflexión crítica sobre la transformación contemporánea de internet, entendida ya no solo como un problema técnico, sino también como un desafío político, ético y humano. Frente al ideal fundacional de una red abierta, descentralizada y orientada al bien común, se describe un escenario marcado por la concentración de poder en plataformas privadas, la opacidad algorítmica y la mercantilización del conocimiento, fenómeno que algunos autores conceptualizan como “tecno feudalismo”. En este contexto, la expansión de la inteligencia artificial intensifica la disputa por la producción, interpretación y validación de la información, desplazando progresivamente prácticas colectivas de construcción de sentido. Ante este panorama, el texto propone la defensa de “lo común” como principio orientador y como estrategia de resistencia. Wikipedia y los proyectos Wikimedia se presentan como el mayor común digital contemporáneo, cuya existencia demuestra la viabilidad de modelos colaborativos, abiertos y no propietarios de producción de conocimiento a gran escala. Editar, contribuir y sostener infraestructuras abiertas se conceptualiza como actos de resistencia frente a la desinformación, la privatización del saber y la automatización acrítica. El discurso convoca a la comunidad a fortalecer tecnologías orientadas al interés público, preservar lenguas y saberes diversos y consolidar comunidades técnicas capaces de sostener el ecosistema del conocimiento libre. Se concluye que la disputa por el futuro de internet es, en última instancia, una disputa por la humanidad que se desea construir, y se afirma que lo común no es un legado garantizado, sino una práctica colectiva que debe renovarse continuamente. 177t0c8qc1hzyopol0b68qefxivid42 2819501 2819500 2026-07-27T11:15:25Z CorraleH 2903442 2819501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Johana | last1 = Botero | orcid1 = 0009-0006-0484-6291 | affiliation1 = Wikimedia Colombia | first2 = Nathaly | last2 = Montoya | orcid2 = 0009-0004-3539-5599 | affiliation2 = Wikimedia Colombia | first3 = Manuel | last3 = Franco-Avellaneda | orcid3 = 0000-0002-0895-8219 | affiliation3 = Wikimedia Colombia | first4 = Julio | last4 = Gaitán | orcid4 = 0000-0002-8500-307X | affiliation4 = Universidad del Rosario | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario''' '''Abstract:''' The opening address of WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 offers a critical reflection on the contemporary transformation of the internet, which is no longer only viewed as a technical issue but a space shaped by power, values, and collective responsibility. To engage with Wikimedia today is to confront political and ethical questions about who produces knowledge, whose voices are represented, and how the digital commons are governed and sustained. In contrast to the founding ideal of an open, decentralized network oriented toward the commons, the text describes a landscape shaped by the concentration of power in private platforms, algorithmic opacity, and the commodification of knowledge—phenomena some scholars conceptualize as “techno-feudalism.” In this context, the expansion of artificial intelligence intensifies disputes over the production, interpretation, and validation of information, increasingly displacing collective practices of meaning-making. Against this backdrop, the text proposes defending “the commons” as both a guiding principle and a strategy of resistance. Wikipedia and the Wikimedia projects are presented as the largest contemporary digital commons, whose existence demonstrates the viability of collaborative, open, and non-proprietary models for large-scale knowledge production. Editing, contributing, and sustaining open infrastructures are framed as acts of resistance against disinformation, the privatization of knowledge, and uncritical automation. The address calls on the community to strengthen technologies aligned with the public interest, safeguard diverse languages and forms of knowledge, and consolidate technical communities capable of sustaining the free knowledge ecosystem. It concludes that the struggle over the future of the internet is ultimately a struggle over the kind of humanity we seek to build, affirming that the commons is not an inherited guarantee but a collective practice that must be continually renewed. '''Resumen:''' El discurso de apertura de la Wiki Conferencia Colombia 2025 plantea una reflexión crítica sobre la transformación contemporánea de internet, entendida ya no solo como un problema técnico, sino también como un desafío político, ético y humano. Frente al ideal fundacional de una red abierta, descentralizada y orientada al bien común, se describe un escenario marcado por la concentración de poder en plataformas privadas, la opacidad algorítmica y la mercantilización del conocimiento, fenómeno que algunos autores conceptualizan como “tecno feudalismo”. En este contexto, la expansión de la inteligencia artificial intensifica la disputa por la producción, interpretación y validación de la información, desplazando progresivamente prácticas colectivas de construcción de sentido. Ante este panorama, el texto propone la defensa de “lo común” como principio orientador y como estrategia de resistencia. Wikipedia y los proyectos Wikimedia se presentan como el mayor común digital contemporáneo, cuya existencia demuestra la viabilidad de modelos colaborativos, abiertos y no propietarios de producción de conocimiento a gran escala. Editar, contribuir y sostener infraestructuras abiertas se conceptualiza como actos de resistencia frente a la desinformación, la privatización del saber y la automatización acrítica. El discurso convoca a la comunidad a fortalecer tecnologías orientadas al interés público, preservar lenguas y saberes diversos y consolidar comunidades técnicas capaces de sostener el ecosistema del conocimiento libre. Se concluye que la disputa por el futuro de internet es, en última instancia, una disputa por la humanidad que se desea construir, y se afirma que lo común no es un legado garantizado, sino una práctica colectiva que debe renovarse continuamente. 0feaivvsg3je8f3kr4oomiz80x5i0t6 2819518 2819501 2026-07-27T11:48:17Z CorraleH 2903442 2819518 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Johana | last1 = Botero | orcid1 = 0009-0006-0484-6291 | affiliation1 = | first2 = Nathaly | last2 = Montoya | orcid2 = 0009-0004-3539-5599 | affiliation2 = | first3 = Manuel | last3 = Franco-Avellaneda | orcid3 = 0000-0002-0895-8219 | affiliation3 = | first4 = Julio | last4 = Gaitán | orcid4 = 0000-0002-8500-307X | affiliation4 = | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Opening: Wikimedia Colombia and Universidad del Rosario''' '''Abstract:''' The opening address of WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 offers a critical reflection on the contemporary transformation of the internet, which is no longer only viewed as a technical issue but a space shaped by power, values, and collective responsibility. To engage with Wikimedia today is to confront political and ethical questions about who produces knowledge, whose voices are represented, and how the digital commons are governed and sustained. In contrast to the founding ideal of an open, decentralized network oriented toward the commons, the text describes a landscape shaped by the concentration of power in private platforms, algorithmic opacity, and the commodification of knowledge—phenomena some scholars conceptualize as “techno-feudalism.” In this context, the expansion of artificial intelligence intensifies disputes over the production, interpretation, and validation of information, increasingly displacing collective practices of meaning-making. Against this backdrop, the text proposes defending “the commons” as both a guiding principle and a strategy of resistance. Wikipedia and the Wikimedia projects are presented as the largest contemporary digital commons, whose existence demonstrates the viability of collaborative, open, and non-proprietary models for large-scale knowledge production. Editing, contributing, and sustaining open infrastructures are framed as acts of resistance against disinformation, the privatization of knowledge, and uncritical automation. The address calls on the community to strengthen technologies aligned with the public interest, safeguard diverse languages and forms of knowledge, and consolidate technical communities capable of sustaining the free knowledge ecosystem. It concludes that the struggle over the future of the internet is ultimately a struggle over the kind of humanity we seek to build, affirming that the commons is not an inherited guarantee but a collective practice that must be continually renewed. '''Resumen:''' El discurso de apertura de la Wiki Conferencia Colombia 2025 plantea una reflexión crítica sobre la transformación contemporánea de internet, entendida ya no solo como un problema técnico, sino también como un desafío político, ético y humano. Frente al ideal fundacional de una red abierta, descentralizada y orientada al bien común, se describe un escenario marcado por la concentración de poder en plataformas privadas, la opacidad algorítmica y la mercantilización del conocimiento, fenómeno que algunos autores conceptualizan como “tecno feudalismo”. En este contexto, la expansión de la inteligencia artificial intensifica la disputa por la producción, interpretación y validación de la información, desplazando progresivamente prácticas colectivas de construcción de sentido. Ante este panorama, el texto propone la defensa de “lo común” como principio orientador y como estrategia de resistencia. Wikipedia y los proyectos Wikimedia se presentan como el mayor común digital contemporáneo, cuya existencia demuestra la viabilidad de modelos colaborativos, abiertos y no propietarios de producción de conocimiento a gran escala. Editar, contribuir y sostener infraestructuras abiertas se conceptualiza como actos de resistencia frente a la desinformación, la privatización del saber y la automatización acrítica. El discurso convoca a la comunidad a fortalecer tecnologías orientadas al interés público, preservar lenguas y saberes diversos y consolidar comunidades técnicas capaces de sostener el ecosistema del conocimiento libre. Se concluye que la disputa por el futuro de internet es, en última instancia, una disputa por la humanidad que se desea construir, y se afirma que lo común no es un legado garantizado, sino una práctica colectiva que debe renovarse continuamente. 9rl3mdtcn47113zqdp63kypx5vslfup 0 330760 2819493 2026-07-27T10:52:18Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Roundtable: the commons in dispute: sovereignty and free knowledge from Wikimedia 2819493 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Luisina | last1 = Ferrante | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9597-0015 | first2 = Patricio | last2 = Lorente | orcid2 = 0000-0002-3618-349X | first3 = Carlo | last3 = Brescia | orcid3 = 0009-0008-3391-1317 | submitted = 2025-06-24 | journal = WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Roundtable: The commons in dispute: sovereignty and free knowledge from Wikimedia''' '''Abstract''' This panel addressed how communities working on digital commons, including projects such as Wikipedia, Wikidata, and other open initiatives, are transforming how knowledge is created, cared for, and shared. Drawing on various Latin American experiences, the panel discussed the importance of strengthening collective governance models, ensuring long-term sustainability, and promoting technological sovereignty in digital environments. The conversation highlighted practices and projects that are promoting digital commons in Colombia and Latin America, emphasizing the role of activists, academics, and members of the Wikimedia community in building more open, fair, and community-based digital infrastructures. It also identified key challenges and opportunities for advancing toward collaborative ecosystems that care for the data, territories, and communities that sustain them. '''Resumen''' Este panel abordó cómo las comunidades que trabajan en torno a los comunes digitales, incluidos proyectos como Wikipedia, Wikidata y otras iniciativas abiertas, están transformando las maneras de crear, cuidar y compartir conocimiento. A partir de diversas experiencias latinoamericanas, se discutió la importancia de fortalecer los modelos de gobernanza colectiva, garantizar la sostenibilidad a largo plazo y promover la soberanía tecnológica en los entornos digitales. La conversación permitió visibilizar prácticas y proyectos que impulsan los comunes digitales en Colombia y América Latina, destacando el papel de activistas, académicos y personas de la comunidad Wikimedia en la construcción de infraestructuras digitales más abiertas, justas y comunitarias. Asimismo, se identificaron retos y oportunidades clave para avanzar hacia ecosistemas colaborativos que cuiden los datos, los territorios y las comunidades que los sostienen. h7krnug5n3qcel5i8x8mrfe4mpyp9h9 2819495 2819493 2026-07-27T11:07:34Z CorraleH 2903442 2819495 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Luisina | last1 = Ferrante | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9597-0015 | first2 = Patricio | last2 = Lorente | orcid2 = 0000-0002-3618-349X | first3 = Carlo | last3 = Brescia | orcid3 = 0009-0008-3391-1317 | submitted = 2025-06-24 | journal = WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Roundtable: The commons in dispute: sovereignty and free knowledge from Wikimedia''' '''Abstract''' This panel addressed how communities working on digital commons, including projects such as Wikipedia, Wikidata, and other open initiatives, are transforming how knowledge is created, cared for, and shared. Drawing on various Latin American experiences, the panel discussed the importance of strengthening collective governance models, ensuring long-term sustainability, and promoting technological sovereignty in digital environments. The conversation highlighted practices and projects that are promoting digital commons in Colombia and Latin America, emphasizing the role of activists, academics, and members of the Wikimedia community in building more open, fair, and community-based digital infrastructures. It also identified key challenges and opportunities for advancing toward collaborative ecosystems that care for the data, territories, and communities that sustain them. '''Resumen''': Este panel abordó cómo las comunidades que trabajan en torno a los comunes digitales, incluidos proyectos como Wikipedia, Wikidata y otras iniciativas abiertas, están transformando las maneras de crear, cuidar y compartir conocimiento. A partir de diversas experiencias latinoamericanas, se discutió la importancia de fortalecer los modelos de gobernanza colectiva, garantizar la sostenibilidad a largo plazo y promover la soberanía tecnológica en los entornos digitales. La conversación permitió visibilizar prácticas y proyectos que impulsan los comunes digitales en Colombia y América Latina, destacando el papel de activistas, académicos y personas de la comunidad Wikimedia en la construcción de infraestructuras digitales más abiertas, justas y comunitarias. Asimismo, se identificaron retos y oportunidades clave para avanzar hacia ecosistemas colaborativos que cuiden los datos, los territorios y las comunidades que los sostienen. c6323dg42qargbxeu64inq1wb6nfv9o 2819497 2819495 2026-07-27T11:09:52Z CorraleH 2903442 2819497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Luisina | last1 = Ferrante | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9597-0015 | first2 = Patricio | last2 = Lorente | orcid2 = 0000-0002-3618-349X | first3 = Carlo | last3 = Brescia | orcid3 = 0009-0008-3391-1317 | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Roundtable: The commons in dispute: sovereignty and free knowledge from Wikimedia''' '''Abstract:''' This panel addressed how communities working on digital commons, including projects such as Wikipedia, Wikidata, and other open initiatives, are transforming how knowledge is created, cared for, and shared. Drawing on various Latin American experiences, the panel discussed the importance of strengthening collective governance models, ensuring long-term sustainability, and promoting technological sovereignty in digital environments. The conversation highlighted practices and projects that are promoting digital commons in Colombia and Latin America, emphasizing the role of activists, academics, and members of the Wikimedia community in building more open, fair, and community-based digital infrastructures. It also identified key challenges and opportunities for advancing toward collaborative ecosystems that care for the data, territories, and communities that sustain them. '''Resumen''': Este panel abordó cómo las comunidades que trabajan en torno a los comunes digitales, incluidos proyectos como Wikipedia, Wikidata y otras iniciativas abiertas, están transformando las maneras de crear, cuidar y compartir conocimiento. A partir de diversas experiencias latinoamericanas, se discutió la importancia de fortalecer los modelos de gobernanza colectiva, garantizar la sostenibilidad a largo plazo y promover la soberanía tecnológica en los entornos digitales. La conversación permitió visibilizar prácticas y proyectos que impulsan los comunes digitales en Colombia y América Latina, destacando el papel de activistas, académicos y personas de la comunidad Wikimedia en la construcción de infraestructuras digitales más abiertas, justas y comunitarias. Asimismo, se identificaron retos y oportunidades clave para avanzar hacia ecosistemas colaborativos que cuiden los datos, los territorios y las comunidades que los sostienen. be37zuqmd5dfj6542716bwa5gy5z93l 0 330761 2819494 2026-07-27T10:59:54Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki - teaching Wayuunaiki with digital media 2819494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Yasir | last1 = Bustos | submitted = 2025-06-24 | journal = WikiConferencia Colombia 2025 | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki - Teaching Wayuunaiki with digital media''' '''Abstract:''' The Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki – Let's Speak Our Language proposal is an innovative educational initiative to teach Wayuunaiki as a second language, grounded in a communicative approach and the strategic use of digital media. Its main objective is to strengthen the learning, appreciation, and preservation of the Wayuu people's mother tongue through accessible materials adapted to educational realities. This proposal responds to the urgent need to revitalize Wayuunaiki among children, young people, and adults who, for various social or educational reasons, have lost contact with their ancestral language. This communicative approach integrates dialogues, real-life situations, and everyday exercises that allow students to use the language daily in meaningful contexts. The project incorporates the Wayuunaiki classroom, a collection of bilingual texts, and the local Wayuu Digital Network, which includes audio, video, images, and educational activities that facilitate dynamic learning in line with current technologies. One of the most notable achievements is the creation of bilingual teaching materials that have been adopted by multiple departments in Colombia and several countries, expanding Wayuunaiki teaching nationwide and internationally. The proposal has also contributed to strengthening Wayuu cultural identity, as it restores the value of their language to the community as a symbol of resistance, memory, and cohesion. '''Resumen:''' La propuesta Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki – Vamos a hablar nuestra lengua, constituye una iniciativa pedagógica innovadora para la enseñanza del wayuunaiki como segunda lengua, fundamentada en un enfoque comunicativo y en el uso estratégico de medios digitales. Su principal objetivo es fortalecer el aprendizaje, la valoración y la preservación de la lengua materna del pueblo wayuu mediante materiales accesibles y adaptados a las realidades educativas. Esta propuesta responde a la necesidad urgente de revitalizar el wayuunaiki entre niños, jóvenes y adultos que, por diversas razones sociales o educativas, han perdido el contacto con su lengua ancestral. Este enfoque comunicativo integra diálogos, situaciones reales y ejercicios cotidianos que permiten a los aprendices usar la lengua en contextos significativos. El proyecto incorpora el aula de wayuunaiki, la colección de textos bilingües y la Red local Wayuu Digital, que incluye audios, videos, imágenes y actividades didácticas que facilitan un aprendizaje dinámico y acorde con las tecnologías actuales. Uno de los logros más destacados es la creación de materiales pedagógicos bilingües que han llegado a múltiples departamentos de Colombia y a diversos países, ampliando el alcance de la enseñanza del wayuunaiki a nivel nacional e internacional. La propuesta también ha permitido fortalecer la identidad cultural wayuu, ya que devuelve a la comunidad el valor de su lengua como símbolo de resistencia, memoria y cohesión social. n7sgqousicd5yy1yeahnnhkob8ippex 2819498 2819494 2026-07-27T11:14:21Z CorraleH 2903442 2819498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Yasir | last1 = Bustos | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki - Teaching Wayuunaiki with digital media''' '''Abstract:''' The Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki – Let's Speak Our Language proposal is an innovative educational initiative to teach Wayuunaiki as a second language, grounded in a communicative approach and the strategic use of digital media. Its main objective is to strengthen the learning, appreciation, and preservation of the Wayuu people's mother tongue through accessible materials adapted to educational realities. This proposal responds to the urgent need to revitalize Wayuunaiki among children, young people, and adults who, for various social or educational reasons, have lost contact with their ancestral language. This communicative approach integrates dialogues, real-life situations, and everyday exercises that allow students to use the language daily in meaningful contexts. The project incorporates the Wayuunaiki classroom, a collection of bilingual texts, and the local Wayuu Digital Network, which includes audio, video, images, and educational activities that facilitate dynamic learning in line with current technologies. One of the most notable achievements is the creation of bilingual teaching materials that have been adopted by multiple departments in Colombia and several countries, expanding Wayuunaiki teaching nationwide and internationally. The proposal has also contributed to strengthening Wayuu cultural identity, as it restores the value of their language to the community as a symbol of resistance, memory, and cohesion. '''Resumen:''' La propuesta Joo'uya Waashajaaiwaa Wanüiki – Vamos a hablar nuestra lengua, constituye una iniciativa pedagógica innovadora para la enseñanza del wayuunaiki como segunda lengua, fundamentada en un enfoque comunicativo y en el uso estratégico de medios digitales. Su principal objetivo es fortalecer el aprendizaje, la valoración y la preservación de la lengua materna del pueblo wayuu mediante materiales accesibles y adaptados a las realidades educativas. Esta propuesta responde a la necesidad urgente de revitalizar el wayuunaiki entre niños, jóvenes y adultos que, por diversas razones sociales o educativas, han perdido el contacto con su lengua ancestral. Este enfoque comunicativo integra diálogos, situaciones reales y ejercicios cotidianos que permiten a los aprendices usar la lengua en contextos significativos. El proyecto incorpora el aula de wayuunaiki, la colección de textos bilingües y la Red local Wayuu Digital, que incluye audios, videos, imágenes y actividades didácticas que facilitan un aprendizaje dinámico y acorde con las tecnologías actuales. Uno de los logros más destacados es la creación de materiales pedagógicos bilingües que han llegado a múltiples departamentos de Colombia y a diversos países, ampliando el alcance de la enseñanza del wayuunaiki a nivel nacional e internacional. La propuesta también ha permitido fortalecer la identidad cultural wayuu, ya que devuelve a la comunidad el valor de su lengua como símbolo de resistencia, memoria y cohesión social. ib6796syh9t94yj9qv1wj2vyxeqno60 0 330762 2819503 2026-07-27T11:17:30Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: How to build a Wikipedia article from zero and not die during the process? a situated experience 2819503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Sebastián | last1 = Correa | orcid1 = 0000-0002-5780-3205 | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''How to build a Wikipedia article from zero and not die during the process? A situated experience''' '''Abstract:''' The Wikiconf, or Wiki Day, has become a very special day for the Wikimedia community in Colombia. It is an opportunity for those of us who, behind a username, support the construction of free knowledge in our country to meet in person. This year was a very special edition, in which I decided to share my experience of writing Wikipedia articles, in response to the constant question: Why write for Wikipedia? What do you gain from it? I decided to take the question seriously and answer it publicly in a talk. It is essential to start with an encyclopedic overview of the topic you want to write about, which means that there are sufficient secondary sources and that the person or event has some recognition; write neutrally and, most importantly, seek help from the Wikimedia community if you need it. In my experience, I have written only 9 articles, but I have written multiple drafts on topics that interest me. Libardomm shared his experience of writing an article about his municipality, Turbana, Bolívar, in which he included his friends and family; in other words, knowledge as a collective construction. Finally, the big conclusion about the question is that we all have a connection or affection for all the articles, which is why we value and enjoy their creation not only as a product, but above all as a process in which we learn and contribute to knowledge. That is part of what drives us forward, as a Wikimedia community. '''Resumen:''' La Wikiconf o wiki día se ha convertido en un día muy especial para la comunidad Wikimedia en Colombia. Es la oportunidad de encontrarnos presencialmente con aquellas personas que, detrás de un nombre de usuario, apoyamos la construcción de conocimiento libre en nuestro país. Este año, fue una versión muy especial, en la que decidí compartir mi experiencia construyendo artículos en Wikipedia, frente a la pregunta constante, ¿por qué escribir en Wikipedia? ¿Qué gano? Decidí tomar en serio estos cuestionamientos y responderlos públicamente en una charla. Es clave, para iniciar, tener en cuenta lo enciclopédico del tema que uno desea escribir, esto significa que haya suficientes fuentes secundarias y que la persona o hecho tengan algún reconocimiento; escribir de manera neutral y lo más importante, y la razón de ser, buscar ayuda de la comunidad Wikimedia si lo necesita. En mi experiencia, son sólo 9 artículos escritos; sin embargo, son múltiples los borradores sobre temas de mi interés. Libardomm compartió su experiencia con la construcción del artículo de su municipio, Turbaná, Bolívar, el que incluyó a sus amigos y familia; el conocimiento como construcción colectiva. Finalmente, la gran conclusión acerca de la pregunta: con todos los artículos guardamos un vínculo o afecto; por eso valoramos y disfrutamos su creación no solo como producto, sino, sobre todo, como un proceso en el que aprendemos y, a la vez, aportamos al conocimiento; eso es parte de lo que nos mueve como comunidad Wikimedia. ig3irmoljxlxdck7dkw4c3xfzipy5i4 0 330763 2819504 2026-07-27T11:23:43Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Free metaphor 2819504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Luis Fernando | last1 = Medina Cardona | orcid1 = 0000-0001-5675-0693 | affiliation1 = Facultad de Artes, Universidad Nacional de Colombia | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Free Metaphor''' '''Abstract:''' Using a multidisciplinary approach to media archaeology and artistic background, contextualize the so-called free culture and open access as a field of diverse experiments and intersections, bound by a common axis of openness and communication. The talk is rich in examples woven together by collaborations and interpretations of intellectual property that precede or dialogue with the concept of free culture in a digital environment. '''Resumen:''' A partir de un enfoque multidisciplinar de arqueología de medios, y antecedentes artísticos contextualizar la denominada cultura libre y acceso abierto como un campo de distintos experimentos y cruces con un eje común de apertura y comunicación. La charla es rica en ejemplos hilados a partir de colaboraciones e interpretaciones de la propiedad intelectual que preceden o dialogan con el concepto de cultura libre en un entorno digital. ouzvq5rftoda7uubc9jhtkko5qhbuod 2819516 2819504 2026-07-27T11:46:22Z CorraleH 2903442 2819516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Luis Fernando | last1 = Medina Cardona | orcid1 = 0000-0001-5675-0693 | affiliation1 = | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Free Metaphor''' '''Abstract:''' Using a multidisciplinary approach to media archaeology and artistic background, contextualize the so-called free culture and open access as a field of diverse experiments and intersections, bound by a common axis of openness and communication. The talk is rich in examples woven together by collaborations and interpretations of intellectual property that precede or dialogue with the concept of free culture in a digital environment. '''Resumen:''' A partir de un enfoque multidisciplinar de arqueología de medios, y antecedentes artísticos contextualizar la denominada cultura libre y acceso abierto como un campo de distintos experimentos y cruces con un eje común de apertura y comunicación. La charla es rica en ejemplos hilados a partir de colaboraciones e interpretaciones de la propiedad intelectual que preceden o dialogan con el concepto de cultura libre en un entorno digital. d9k8hj8ip2ti0xp8ldn10x4gstkbb2n 0 330764 2819508 2026-07-27T11:28:44Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Oral libraries in the midst of a knowledge system based on the written word 2819508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Juan David | last1 = Reina | orcid1 = 0000-0001-8146-674X | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Oral libraries in the midst of a knowledge system based on the written word''' '''Abstract:''' Hegemonic knowledge systems have been built on a foundation of textual language, with books serving as their primary mechanism for disseminating ideas, whereas in academia, this role is filled with scientific articles or conceptual notes. Likewise, public policies and their justifications are based on this epistemological foundation. However, we must ask ourselves how to generate, disseminate, and archive other forms of knowledge in other areas. Both oral and, in particular, sound-based knowledge take us to a specific place, with a distinctive way of speaking and a clear use of words and sounds from the environment. Therefore, this talk highlights the idea of oral libraries as epistemological processes that can be key to today's digital commons. '''Resumen:''' Los sistemas de conocimiento hegemónico han sido construidos sobre una base de lenguaje textual; su principal mecanismo de difusión de ideas han sido libros y en el caso de la academia, los artículos científicos o notas conceptuales. Asimismo, las políticas públicas y sus justificaciones se basan en esta base epistemológica. Ahora bien, cabe preguntarnos en otros territorios: ¿cómo generar, difundir, archivar otros conocimientos? Tanto lo oral como, en particular, lo sonoro nos llevan a un lugar concreto, con una forma de hablar distintiva, un uso de palabras y sonidos del entorno claros. Por tanto, en esta charla se destaca la idea de las Oralotecas como procesos epistemológicos que pueden ser claves para los comunes digitales hoy en día. ppokt1afpzxu0asv4k7960haxp81t8l 0 330765 2819510 2026-07-27T11:32:42Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Roundtable: The path toward community environmental monitoring''' 2819510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Yuli | last1 = Betin | affiliation1 = Colnodo | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Roundtable: The path toward community environmental monitoring''' '''Abstract:''' Colnodo has been promoting and implementing Environmental Alert Systems, a project that integrates three fundamental pillars: citizen science, community environmental monitoring, and the use of free hardware and software. This approach has allowed community networks to become strategic spaces for the appropriation of accessible, low-cost technologies applied to local environmental dynamics. During this experience, the vision that the arrival of technology in territories goes far beyond the installation of devices has been strengthened. It is a process that requires understanding the realities and needs of each community, and as social organizations, we can play a key role in accompanying these processes. This involves adapting both hardware and software to the challenges identified by the communities themselves, strengthening technological autonomy and the sustainability of initiatives. Environmental monitoring sensors are not only measurement tools; they are also catalysts for change and generators of environmental data in partnership with communities, opening up opportunities for local capacity building and technological appropriation. '''Resumen:''' Colnodo ha venido impulsando e implementando Sistemas de Alertas Ambientales, un proyecto que integra tres pilares fundamentales: las ciencias ciudadanas, el monitoreo ambiental comunitario y el uso de software y hardware libres. Este enfoque ha permitido que las redes comunitarias sean espacios estratégicos para la apropiación de tecnologías accesibles y de bajo costo, aplicadas a las dinámicas ambientales locales. Durante esta experiencia, se ha ido fortaleciendo la visión de que la llegada de la tecnología a los territorios va mucho más allá de la instalación de dispositivos. Es un proceso que requiere comprender las realidades y necesidades de cada comunidad, y desde las organizaciones sociales, podemos desempeñar un papel clave acompañando estos procesos. Esto implica adaptar tanto el hardware como el software a los retos identificados por las propias comunidades, fortaleciendo la autonomía tecnológica y la sostenibilidad de las iniciativas. Los sensores de monitoreo ambiental no son únicamente herramientas de medición; también son catalizadores de cambio y generadores de datos ambientales, de la mano con las comunidades, y abren oportunidades para el fortalecimiento de capacidades locales y la apropiación tecnológica. 19ecpj6vntv94pqrs9j90qccsjhskn9 2819514 2819510 2026-07-27T11:44:34Z CorraleH 2903442 2819514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Yuli | last1 = Betin | affiliation1 = | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Roundtable: The path toward community environmental monitoring''' '''Abstract:''' Colnodo has been promoting and implementing Environmental Alert Systems, a project that integrates three fundamental pillars: citizen science, community environmental monitoring, and the use of free hardware and software. This approach has allowed community networks to become strategic spaces for the appropriation of accessible, low-cost technologies applied to local environmental dynamics. During this experience, the vision that the arrival of technology in territories goes far beyond the installation of devices has been strengthened. It is a process that requires understanding the realities and needs of each community, and as social organizations, we can play a key role in accompanying these processes. This involves adapting both hardware and software to the challenges identified by the communities themselves, strengthening technological autonomy and the sustainability of initiatives. Environmental monitoring sensors are not only measurement tools; they are also catalysts for change and generators of environmental data in partnership with communities, opening up opportunities for local capacity building and technological appropriation. '''Resumen:''' Colnodo ha venido impulsando e implementando Sistemas de Alertas Ambientales, un proyecto que integra tres pilares fundamentales: las ciencias ciudadanas, el monitoreo ambiental comunitario y el uso de software y hardware libres. Este enfoque ha permitido que las redes comunitarias sean espacios estratégicos para la apropiación de tecnologías accesibles y de bajo costo, aplicadas a las dinámicas ambientales locales. Durante esta experiencia, se ha ido fortaleciendo la visión de que la llegada de la tecnología a los territorios va mucho más allá de la instalación de dispositivos. Es un proceso que requiere comprender las realidades y necesidades de cada comunidad, y desde las organizaciones sociales, podemos desempeñar un papel clave acompañando estos procesos. Esto implica adaptar tanto el hardware como el software a los retos identificados por las propias comunidades, fortaleciendo la autonomía tecnológica y la sostenibilidad de las iniciativas. Los sensores de monitoreo ambiental no son únicamente herramientas de medición; también son catalizadores de cambio y generadores de datos ambientales, de la mano con las comunidades, y abren oportunidades para el fortalecimiento de capacidades locales y la apropiación tecnológica. brb00frcsp01w1m76yctxrk5honoqqq 0 330766 2819511 2026-07-27T11:36:03Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Panel: AI and digital commons 2819511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Johana | last1 = Botero | orcid1 = 0009-0006-0484-6291 | first2 = Rafael | last2 = Méndez-Romero | orcid2 = 0000-0001-6580-0162 | first3 = Amalia | last3 = Toledo | orcid3 = 0000-0003-3617-6967 | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Panel: AI and digital commons''' '''Abstract:''' Commons are defined not merely as infrastructure but as models of collective governance and reciprocity. The participants analyze the current "crisis-opportunity" paradox: a scenario where Wikipedia and Wikidata serve as the "backbone" of digital knowledge for training AI models, yet face an influx of machine traffic that threatens their financial and human sustainability. The discussion highlights the paradox of openness, in which major tech corporations extract value from digital public goods to create closed, proprietary products, effectively subsidized by volunteer community labor with no return. The debate explores the distinction between opaque, biased commercial AI and open, public AI, which enables auditability and transparency. It is emphasized that, while AI emulates thought through stochastic processes, it lacks the human verification and consensus that are essential to Wikimedia projects. The panel concludes by proposing resistance strategies rooted in cognitive sovereignty, demanding fair attribution, implementing usage fees on tech giants' infrastructure, and promoting citizen laboratories to "cool down" technology, ensuring it serves the public interest. '''Resumen:''' Este panel analiza la intersección entre la inteligencia artificial generativa y los comunes digitales, definidos no solo como infraestructura, sino también como modelos de gobernanza colectiva y de reciprocidad. Los ponentes examinan la actual "oportuncrisis": una situación en la que Wikipedia y Wikidata se consolidan como la "columna vertebral" del conocimiento digital para entrenar modelos de IA, mientras enfrentan un aumento del tráfico de máquinas que pone en riesgo su sostenibilidad financiera y humana. Se denuncia una paradoja de lo abierto, en la que las grandes corporaciones tecnológicas extraen valor de los bienes públicos digitales para crear productos privados cerrados, subsidiados por el trabajo voluntario de la comunidad, sin recibir retribución alguna. El debate profundiza en la distinción entre la IA comercial, a menudo opaca y sesgada, y la IA abierta o pública, que permite la auditabilidad y la transparencia. Se enfatiza que la IA emula el pensamiento mediante procesos estocásticos, pero carece de la capacidad de verificación y de consenso humano que caracteriza a los proyectos Wikimedia. Como conclusión, se proponen estrategias de resistencia basadas en la soberanía cognitiva, la exigencia de atribución justa, la implementación de cobros por el uso masivo de infraestructura a empresas tecnológicas y el fomento de laboratorios ciudadanos para "enfriar" la tecnología y ponerla al servicio del interés público. gn7v5o24zamp7mf6a8bttvvkyiopaqu 0 330767 2819512 2026-07-27T11:39:26Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: We Are Not Communists, We Are Commoners 2819512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Alexander | last1 = Correa | affiliation1 = Platohedro | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''We Are Not Communists, We Are Commoners''' '''Abstract:''' In this lightning talk, I will share Platohedro's experience in exploring the commons, the relationships it has woven, and the various moments that have marked this journey from 2013 to 2025. 2013–2015: Mesas de los Comunes (Commons Tables) in Medellín, a process that brought together collectives and organizations from the city, culminating in MDE15 alongside the Museo de Antioquia. 2016–2018: Cultural Commons, a collaboration with Penny Travlou (University of Edinburgh) and Luciana Fleischman within the Arts Collaboratory, where we delved into artistic practices as spaces of the commons. 2019–2022: Power to the Commons, an exchange between Latin America and Africa, guided by the principles of Buen Vivir and Ubuntu, exploring new forms of cooperation and reciprocity. 2023–2025: Commoning, an opportunity to imagine and practice other possible worlds, through creativity, care, and collective action. '''Resumen:''' En esta charla relámpago compartiré la experiencia de Platohedro en su exploración de los comunes, las relaciones que ha tejido y los distintos momentos que han marcado este recorrido entre 2013 y 2025. 2013 – 2015: Mesas de los Comunes en Medellín, un proceso que reunió a colectivos y organizaciones de la ciudad, culminando en el MDE15 junto al Museo de Antioquia. 2016 – 2018: Comunes culturales, una colaboración con Penny Travlou (Universidad de Edimburgo) y Luciana Fleischman en Arts Collaboratory, donde profundizamos en las prácticas artísticas como espacios de lo común. 2019 – 2022: Power to the Commons, un intercambio entre Latinoamérica y África, guiado por los principios del Buen Vivir y Ubuntu, que exploró nuevas formas de cooperación y reciprocidad. 2023 – 2025: Commoning, una oportunidad para imaginar y practicar otros mundos posibles, desde la creatividad, el cuidado y la acción colectiva. 3ljpvwht984euuow731espevz85qv9k 2819513 2819512 2026-07-27T11:43:19Z CorraleH 2903442 2819513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Alexander | last1 = Correa | affiliation1 = | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''We Are Not Communists, We Are Commoners''' '''Abstract:''' In this lightning talk, I will share Platohedro's experience in exploring the commons, the relationships it has woven, and the various moments that have marked this journey from 2013 to 2025. 2013–2015: Mesas de los Comunes (Commons Tables) in Medellín, a process that brought together collectives and organizations from the city, culminating in MDE15 alongside the Museo de Antioquia. 2016–2018: Cultural Commons, a collaboration with Penny Travlou (University of Edinburgh) and Luciana Fleischman within the Arts Collaboratory, where we delved into artistic practices as spaces of the commons. 2019–2022: Power to the Commons, an exchange between Latin America and Africa, guided by the principles of Buen Vivir and Ubuntu, exploring new forms of cooperation and reciprocity. 2023–2025: Commoning, an opportunity to imagine and practice other possible worlds, through creativity, care, and collective action. '''Resumen:''' En esta charla relámpago compartiré la experiencia de Platohedro en su exploración de los comunes, las relaciones que ha tejido y los distintos momentos que han marcado este recorrido entre 2013 y 2025. 2013 – 2015: Mesas de los Comunes en Medellín, un proceso que reunió a colectivos y organizaciones de la ciudad, culminando en el MDE15 junto al Museo de Antioquia. 2016 – 2018: Comunes culturales, una colaboración con Penny Travlou (Universidad de Edimburgo) y Luciana Fleischman en Arts Collaboratory, donde profundizamos en las prácticas artísticas como espacios de lo común. 2019 – 2022: Power to the Commons, un intercambio entre Latinoamérica y África, guiado por los principios del Buen Vivir y Ubuntu, que exploró nuevas formas de cooperación y reciprocidad. 2023 – 2025: Commoning, una oportunidad para imaginar y practicar otros mundos posibles, desde la creatividad, el cuidado y la acción colectiva. qtxj0c09gp53pbyne06vnlbyfcrlzrc 0 330768 2819523 2026-07-27T11:58:01Z CorraleH 2903442 Abstract: Decentralized Web3 Governance for the Wikimedia Community? 2819523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Santiago | last1 = Garzón Terán | submitted = 2025-06-24 | published = 2026-07-27 | journal = WikiJournal of Humanities | license = CC BY-SA 4.0 | abstract = }} '''Decentralized Web3 Governance for the Wikimedia Community?''' '''Abstract:''' The long and distinguished history of the Wikimedia ecosystem has provided valuable insights and lessons learned regarding the dispute over control of knowledge on the web. This activity aims to contribute to the point: “Pilot experiments in decentralized decision-making” of the Wikimedia Foundation's Annual Plan, bringing to the public community discussion table practical and real use cases in which, beyond the purely speculative and financial aspects of the blockchain ecosystem, Web3 can offer highly efficient tools to promote and guarantee knowledge equity. In this space, the functioning of some Web3 tools for decentralized governance will be presented in a practical way, establishing parallels with existing mechanisms in the Wikimedia ecosystem, such as MetaWiki SecurePoll, RFCs, Community Voting, and the Board of Trustees. '''Resumen:''' La larga y marcada trayectoria del ecosistema Wikimedia ha facilitado valiosas reflexiones y aprendizajes en torno a la disputa por el control del conocimiento en la web. Esta actividad pretende contribuir al punto: "Experimentos piloto en la toma de decisiones descentralizadas" del Plan Anual de la Fundación Wikimedia, trayendo a la mesa pública de discusión comunitaria casos de uso prácticos y reales en los que, más allá del asunto meramente especulativo y financiero del ecosistema blockchain, la web3 puede ofrecer herramientas altamente eficientes para promover y garantizar la equidad del conocimiento. Durante este espacio, se expondrá de manera práctica el funcionamiento de algunas herramientas web3 para la gobernanza descentralizada, estableciendo paralelismos con mecanismos existentes en el ecosistema Wikimedia, como, por ejemplo, Metawiki - Securepoll, RFC, Votaciones comunitarias, Board of Trustees, entre otros. gsti3ez0pcrvel9f67kg48f9zzbgghf